It was such acts of frivolity which led to the mass hysteria and innocent killings in “The Crucible”: A group of girls, consisting of Abigail who goes on to become a key player in the eventual witch trials, Mary Warren who plays a pivotal role in the fate of John Proctor and Betty Parris the daughter of Reverend Samuel Parris amongst other girls, were caught dancing in the woods, with West Indian slave Tituba. After being caught by Reverend Parris, the girls claim Tituba had bewitched them and led them into the forest. After seeing Tituba arrested on no more than their allegations of witchery, a whole series of accusations led by Abigail begin to bring the town of Salem into turmoil. John Proctor, a local farmer, is dragged into proceedings as Abigail, his former maid (and during the course of Abigail providing her services, Proctor and Abigail had an affair), accused Proctor’s wife of witchery. Proctor however, sees through the façade of Abigail and hysteria surrounding the witch trials, and attempts to uncover the truth finds himself in the courts attempting to save his wife from being hung; with the help of his new servant Mary Warren, who is also the friend of Abigail, and has agreed to confess and reveal the true nature of the allegations and the backing of the influential “witch expert” Hale.
I have chosen to focus on Danforth, who is the Deputy-Governor and commands authority this shown through the stage directions when he is introduced, Miller states in the stage directions “Enter Deputy-Governor Danforth and behind him Ezekiel Cheever and Parris. On his appearance, silence falls. Danforth is a grave man in his sixties, of some humour and sophistication that does not, however, interfere with an exact loyalty to his position and his cause. He comes down to Giles who awaits his wrath.” This gives the audience an immediate sense of his power and ruthless nature.
At the start the start of this scene Danforth is presented as nervous, however he masks his nerves by trying to discredit the opposing arguments however he only seems to further reveal the ridiculous nature of the allegations. Miller shows this through the interaction between both Danforth and Hale. Danforth says “Mr Hale, believe me; for a man of such terrible learning you are most bewildered – I hope you will forgive me… (To Proctor and the others.) And I bid you all do like wise. In an ordinary crime, how does one defend the accused? One calls up witnesses to prove his innocence. But witchcraft is ipso facto, on its face and by its nature, an invisible crime is it not? Therefore, who may possibly be witness to it? The witch and the victim. None other. Now we cannot hope the witch will accuse herself; granted? Therefore, we must rely upon her victims – and they do testify, the children certainly do testify. As for the witches, none will deny that we are most eager for all their confessions. Therefore, what is left for a lawyer to bring out? I think I have made my point have I not.” Miller incorporates the use of dramatic irony within this quote, to show how Danforth discredits both the opposing argument, along with his own, when Danforth says “In an ordinary crime, how does one defend the accused? One calls up witnesses to prove his innocence. But witchcraft is ipso facto, on its face and by its nature, an invisible crime is it not? Therefore, who may possibly be witness to it?” By calling witchcraft an invisible crime and comparing it to a normal crime Danforth contradicts himself and appears to say there is no evidence and an absence of witnesses in the case of witchcraft and as a result an inability to prove the crime happened. Danforth appears to be saying in the context of the play that the only evidence is the testimony of the victim but by comparing it to a normal crime the audience sees there is a lack of evidence and no way to prove the existence of witchcraft. This quote shows the manipulative nature of the judge; Danforth, by this point has deduced that the accusations being made are in fact false however having at first believed and convicted many people based upon these false allegations feels that in order to maintain his image he must be steadfast in his approach and preserve his immediate response to the previous accusations; He does this by using the unmitigated belief in the Bible along with the mass hysteria around witchcraft shown by the inhabitants of Salem at the time and his own image of a respectable, educated and highly esteemed member of society, to manoeuvre the direction of the trial in order to find the accused guilty.
Further to this, the manner in which the trial was conducted draws many parallels with the McCarthy trial in the “House Committee on Un-American Activities”; those in positions of authority amongst the “House Committee on Un-American Activities”, were able to draw upon the mass hysteria surrounding the communist threat and as a result, knowingly wrongly accuse any person causing a threat to their attempts to further escalate the fear and hysteria amongst the public or their own along with their and position amongst society and peers. Miller having himself been accused of being a communist felt compelled to write “The Crucible”. The fact that Danforth is nervous at the start of the scene, immediately builds tension; as the audience can see that there are flaws in his argument, and that he is already trying to cover these up, by using his position of power to direct the early course of the case in his favour.
As the scene progresses Danforth grows frustrated, as the case begins to be continually complicated. This is shown as Danforth aggressively asks leading questions, in a desperate attempt to manipulate proceedings in his favour; this is shown as Danforth says, “(Pounding it into her): You have seen the Devil, you have made compact with Lucifer, have you not?” The use of the leading question highlights Danforth’s desperation; the leading question places the answer in the mouth of the person answering, placing the person answering under immense pressure, to answer in the manner the person who is asking the question desires. The stage directions, “(Pounding it into her) are key in this quote, showing Danforth frustration. The word pounding has connotations of relentlessness, aggression and intensity. The stage directions show Danforth’s frustration, and as a reader, you can imagine how this line could be performed, with Danforth, standing up, shouting at Mary, and pounding the table he stands behind, with clenched fists. Danforth’s relentless manipulation of the case reflects the McCarthy trials. The mass hysteria surrounding the trials, placed the judge, who could see through the mass hysteria, under immense pressure to maintain the hysteria, as this would give them the ability to remove those in opposition to their cause; the hysteria causing the public to be easily led astray, being carried blindly by the hysteria, thus giving power to the person in the position of power, to manipulate the public into believing, and gather against the common enemy; The common enemy during the McCarthy era being communists, and anyone who was seen to be in support of the communists, and their values, accused of being a communist or communist sympathiser. In the case of “The Crucible” the enemy being those accused of witchery and anyone who was in support of the accused ‘witch’ was accused of witchery. This builds tension as the audience can see through the mass hysteria; the audience can see Danforth’s self-driven motivation, trying his utmost to maintain his position and respectable reputation. The audience therefore side with the accused, and are therefore anxious to see how the remainder of the trial will play out.
Danforth’s interaction with other characters, in particular the contrast in Mary’s and Abigail’s treatment, is yet another way in which he manipulates the court’s proceedings. Danforth is very harsh, cold and direct towards Mary; whilst he is comforting, calm and enticing towards Abigail, who is the key to Danforth seeing out the trial and the desired outcome, in the favour of Danforth and against the accused. Danforth is threatening, aggressive and harsh towards Mary, an example of this cold treatment being Danforth saying “I cannot hear you. What do you say? (Mary utters again unintelligibly.) You will confess yourself or you will hang! (He turns her roughly to face him.) Do you know who I am? I say you will hang if you do not open with me!” Danforth uses threatening language, openly and directly making threats on the life of Mary. The use of the question, although not a leading question, again places pressure on Mary; Danforth is trying, shamelessly, to cause Mary to give in and buckle under the pressure, so that the remainder of the trial will play into the hands of Danforth. Although not drawing a direct parallel with the McCarthy trials, in terms of the threats made on the lives of those in opposition; those who were in opposition faced prison and those in the literary and drama businesses who had the creativity and influence, to change people’s opinions and allow them to see through the mass hysteria which had blinded people, could have restrictions placed on their works.
Further to this, Danforth treats Abigail as if she was a child, with attention and submission, this is seen when Danforth says “(weakening): Child, I do not mistrust you -” Danforth comforts Abigail, calling her child, and emphasising his will to accept her word, thus showing that Danforth is merely following Abigail’s lead, manoeuvring the case in her direction, so that his actions will not contradict Abigail’s accusations and discredit the case. The stage directions simply read, “(weakening)” this shows he is breaking down, slowly falling into submission; although Danforth is theoretically holding the most authority in the courtroom, it is actually Abigail who holds the balance of power, the final outcome of the case resting in her hands. The contrast in treatment between the two girls highlights Danforth’s manipulative nature, doing his very best to maintain his position, showing complete disregard to the life of those about to be hung. Similar to the attitude shown by the judge of the McCarthy trials, the cases were conducted in a manipulative manner, protecting those in positions of authority within the government and “House Committee on Un-American Activities”, without showing any regard for the accused. The contrast in the treatment, between Abigail and Mary, create tension as both the audience and Proctor, know Abigail is making false accusations in the hope of one day once again finding love with Proctor; whilst Danforth knows Abigail is lying, without understanding her motivation for doing so, is intent on allowing her accusations to be accepted in the hope of maintaining his own reputation. The audience, who is detached from the mass hysteria, clearly understands the motivation of both Danforth and Abigail, and are therefore, eager to see how the trial will play out; the audience is also keen to see how Abigail will fashion the course of the trial and how Danforth will follow Abigail’s lead.
Danforth also constantly disregards Hale, who stands in opposition to Danforth and in the favour of the accused. Danforth interrupts, discredits and cuts out Hale’s involvement in proceedings. An example of this being this brief interchange between the two,
“Hale: But this child claims the girls are not truthful, and if they are not –
Danforth: That is precisely what I am about to consider, sir. What more may you ask of me? Unless you doubt my probity?
Hale (defeated): I surely do not sir. Let you consider it then.”
Within this interchange we see Hale unable to complete his dialogue; he is interrupted by Danforth, so that he may not have any influence within the trial. Danforth understands that Hale has the intelligence and influence to break through the mass hysteria, opening the eyes of those engulfed by the hysteria, and therefore breaking down the trial and exposing Danforth’s manipulative nature; Danforth’s only intentions being to maintain his own image. Danforth is also aware of Hale’s nerves as Hale knows if he were to disregard Danforth he would also being accused. Danforth uses this, and it shows through in their interchange; Danforth directs two questions at Hale after interrupting him, the key question being, “Unless you doubt my probity?” with Danforth knowing that Hale’s only possible answer being yes, as Hale knows if he were to go against Danforth he may be victimised and wrongly accused. Tension is created as the exchange highlights that Danforth has something to hide, and that he will use his manipulative tendencies to discredit those who stand against him.
The scene is constructed using the characters position’s on stage, and uses religious imagery to symbolise the way in which the characters are portrayed by Danforth. The group of girls, who along with Abigail, have made false accusations and are responsible for stirring up the mass hysteria; their entry into the scene contains significant imagery. Miller instructs in his stage directions, “But she breaks into sobs at the thought of it, and the right door opens, and enter Suzanna Walcott, Mercy Lewis, Betty Parris, and finally Abigail. Cheever comes to Danforth.” The girl’s entry from the right has significant religious imagery, with the right symbolising good, purity and God, however they would be more fit to enter from the left, which represents evil, Satan and hell. This imagery of the girls being good, is a complete juxtaposition of their actions, the girls have wrongly accused and cost the lives of many. Despite this Danforth sees the girls as good, despite their unholy nature and actions which contradict the puritan lifestyle; the girls are beneficiary to Danforth, providing him with the direction and manner in which to conduct trial; using Abigail in particular to gain the outcome which would see him maintain his reputation and respectability within Salem. Also Abigail enters last, her introduction to the scene is key in the scenes development and final outcome, as a result it would be expected that she would enter first; this in its self creates tension as the audience and those within the courtroom anticipate her arrival as they watch the other girls filter into the courtroom. The battle between the true good and evil represented here, reflects the McCarthy trials as the battle between the accused ‘communist sympathisers’ who were portrayed as threatening and in the wrong, yet they were actually the ones in the right, trying to expose the false, self-centred nature of the trials and destroy the mass-hysteria surrounding the communist threat. The construction of the scene creates tension as the entrances, exits and positions of the characters on stage, for example the entry of Goody Proctor, and the backs of Abigail and John Proctor being turned on her, so that no eye contact shall be made; all build tension in themselves with the audience eager to see how the introduction of characters will be used by Danforth, to direct the case in his favour, or how the characters will act under the pressure and mass hysteria.
In the final part of the scene, Danforth is feeling desperate, as he wishes to remove the opposition who stand in the way of his desired outcome; this is evident as Danforth says “(to Proctor): What are you? (Proctor is beyond speech in his anger.) You are combined with anti-Christ, are you not? I have seen your power; you will not deny it! What say you mister?” Danforth’s desperation is evident as he makes wild statements, directing these wayward statements at Proctor such as “You are combined with anti-Christ, are you not?” The use of these questions is effective, as they give the audience an insight into the desperate frame of mind Danforth finds himself. This shows us, as an audience, that he is focused solely on ensuring his own position of power remains intact; to maintain his position he needs to ensure that all those in opposition, and who see through the mass hysteria are eradicated, whether that is done through hanging or prison is of no concern to him, and as a result he accuses Proctor of being “combined with anti-Christ”. This again highlights his ruthless nature, whilst he is desperate to extinguish Proctor’s opposition; he is also infuriated that Proctor has almost, single-handedly brought down the witch trials, the result of which are pivotal to the maintenance of Danforth’s reputation. This self maintenance is again linked heavily to McCarthyism, McCarthy, just as Danforth, needed to eradicate his opposition and fuel the mass hysteria, if he had any chance of keeping his high position in society; as a result of this he wrongly accused many innocent Americans, especially those with celebrity status, knowing that the media would use this and stir up the mass hysteria amongst the public.
To conclude, Miller uses the development of Danforth’s character, to build tension, culminating in Proctor finally denouncing God, effectively. The fact that Danforth is nervous at the start of the scene, immediately builds tension; as the audience can see that there are flaws in his argument, and that he is already trying to cover these up, by using his position of power to direct the early course of the case in his favour. As the battle between Danforth and Proctor develops over the course of the scene, Danforth cleverly introduces, and sides with Abigail, allowing her to lead proceedings whilst Danforth would intelligently follow, improvising and feeding of Abigail’s wild allegations and went along with her whilst she fell under the “possession” of Mary. All the while, discrediting Hale, who was a key to Proctor’s argument. Danforth also introduced the wife of Proctor, after leading him to confess lechery with Abigail, only for his wife to deny his confession. This then makes Proctor appear to be dishonest, as the scene develops further, Proctor becomes further infuriated, seeing his arguments were being discredited. After Danforth has got to the point where his desperation leads to him accusing Proctor, of being “combined with anti-Christ”, this fills Proctor with rage, seeing him denouncing God. Miller wants us, as an audience to side with and empathies with Proctor; Proctor representing the voice of reason and Miller himself in many ways. With Danforth representing McCarthy himself, Miller uses Proctor, to make the audience see how ridiculous and unjust Danforth and McCarthy were.