How does the Merchant subvert the courtly love code?

Claire Gittoes

The courtly love is a philosophy of love and code of lovemaking that flourished in France and England during the Middle Ages. Although its origins are obscure, it probably derived from the works of Ovid, various Middle Eastern ideas popular at the time, and the songs of the troubadours.

According to the code, a man falls passionately in love with a married woman of equal or higher rank. Before his love can be declared, he must suffer long months of silence; before it can be consummated, he must prove his devotion by noble service and daring exploits. The lovers eventually pledge themselves to secrecy and to remain faithful despite all obstacles. In reality, courtly love was little more than a set of rules for committing adultery. It was more important as a literary invention, expressed in such works as Chrétien de Troyes's Lancelot (12th cent.), Guillaume de Lorris's Roman de la Rose (13th cent.), and Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde (14th cent.). In these works it was the subjective presentation of the lovers' passion for each other and their consideration for other people that transformed the code of courtly love into one of the most important literary influences in Western culture.

With this in mind, how does the Merchant present those characters involved in the courtly love code, and how is the courtly love code therefore subverted?

From the beginning the physical contrast between the old, grey husband, “oold and hoor” and the young, fair wife is established. This is an indication of the Merchant’s dismissive attitude towards courtly love:

“Where as thise bachelors singe ‘allas,’

Whan that they finden any adversitee

In love, which nis but childish vanittee.

And trewly it sit wel to be so,

That bacheleris have often peyne and wo.”

Here the lot of the married man is juxtaposed with the conventional literary figure of the courtly lover, young, single and pinning away because the object of his desire ignores him. The Merchant is referring specifically to the classic sympathies of courtly love, “peyne” and “wo”, whilst stating that love is “childish.” The Merchant reveals that young men think their liberty will bring happiness in love, whereas the reverse is true. The Merchant is literally subverting the code of courtly love by undermining it.

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The introduction of the heroine in aristocratic romance, the main object of desire and competition for the male protagonist, involves the convention of effictio. The narrative stops and she is described in physical detail using highly conventional similes and metaphors. Typically she has hair spun like gold or the rays of the sun, skin like ivory, cheeks like roses and lips like coral. If she is animated at all, she has a soft, low and tuneful voice, is moderate in all she says and does, and moves modestly. Chaucer draws on this convention when he describes May, “Hir middle small, hire armes longe and sklendre, Hir wise governaunce, her gentillesse, Hir wommnely beringe.” However, the description is undercut by being set in the imagination of an old man in bed, “this was his fantasye.” This is yet another example of the merchant seemingly presenting the conventional courtly love ideal and then undermining it.

As soon as he sees May at her wedding feast, Damian becomes so overcome with love that he falls ill and has to take to his bed. He comforts himself by writing her a letter in refined verse, which he does not send but places next to his aching heart in a silk purse, “And in a lettre wroot he al his sorwe,/ In manere of a compleynt or a lay, Unto his faire, fresshe lady May; And in a purs of sylk heng on his sherte/ He hath it put, and leyde it at his herte.” Once again the conventions of courtly love are being mocked, as in context the action seems both rather unnecessary and completely ineffectual. The poems of courtly love written by Damian are transported from the silk purse by his heart, via May’s bosom, to the privy.

When he eventually has the opportunity to declare his love to her in his enfeebled state, he swears her to secrecy. In short, Damian behaves just as the archetypal courtly lover should. Chaucer draws on the refined language of courtly love to describe Damian’s sudden attraction to May, “He was so ravysshed on his lady May/ That for the verray peyne he was ny wood. Almoost he swelte and swowned ther he stood,/ So soore hath Venus hurt hym with hire brond,” elevating the infatuation of a young servant for a girl from the streets to the level of knights and ladies of high romance. The lexis used to describe Damian’s condition are typical of the courtly lover, in “peyne” and “swowned.” However, one could see this description of Damian’s condition as revealing the Merchant’s disdain of the courtly love code, almost making a mockery of Damian’s behaviour whilst still remaining within the convention.

However, the fact that he is a servant and that the object of his desires is a young woman of the town, of such easy virtue that she readily succumbs to his advances; which once again undermines the courtly love code. As the object of desire was conventionally a woman of equal or higher rank. So although the Merchant is seemingly remaining within the literally convention he is overtly undermining the code by revealing the social snobbery behind the convention and allowing it to become a source of humour. Furthermore, Chaucer alters the courtly love code by having the Merchant reveals the voice of May who takes pity”of this sike Damyan.” This defies the courtship conventional, as traditionally the Lady remains mute. However, not only is May given a voice but her first utterances completely challenge the courtly code. The language used by May is in keeping with her ‘town of the town’ status, “whom that this thing displease, I rekke nought, for here I am assure.” In short May does not care who she offends or displeases, such certainly contradicts the convention of the courtly love code whereby the Lady, “remains faithful despite all obstacles.”

In this short section, (lines 767-802) the lack of a true love story is exposed and a lustful secret game revealed, “so secrely that no wight of it wiste.” The courtly love code of honour is satirised with May continuing to behave in a way, which was socially undesirable in Chaucer’s time. The Merchant subverts the code of courtly love by presenting May has the being totally in charge and in control of the situation totally reversing the roles of the lovers within the code of honour.

The Merchant’s heavy irony continues as he offers the opinion that May’s decision to become Damian;s lover, “Heere nay ye se how excellent franchise/In women is, whan they hem narwe avise,” represents the kind of ‘franchise” meaning generosity, women are capable of when they act without consultation. Furthermore, the narrator implies that he would prefer to see the young Damian die.

Moreover, May continues to reject convention: her letter is not in verse, but instead is direct and explicit and effectively delivered. May delivers the letter “And sotilly this lettre doun she threste/ Under his pilwe; rede it if hym leste,” in a manner which implies the May is totally in charge. The language used by the Merchant reinforces this idea she is described as, crafty and thrusting the letter under Damian’s pillow.

This is further reinforced by Damian role’s being undermined also taking on the role of the victim in the situation. He is a relatively neutral victim of May’s charms, with May taking him by the hand and squeezing it which would suggest that she is almost ‘twisting his arm;’ “She taketh hym by the hand and harde hym twiste/ So secrely that no wight of it wiste.” Furthermore Chaucer is clearly also drawing on this convention satirically when he describes the actions of Damian, who combs and preens himself before becoming an even more unctuous servant, when he has received May’s response whilst doing, “al that his lady lust and lyketh.” In addition, later on in the tale May takes over the plotting of the, wholly caranal, realisation of their mutual desires, leaves Damian up a pear tree. Once again reinforcing the fact that May is very much in control. The invention of this contribution to the fabliau gives clarity to the subverted nature of the romance presented in, ‘The Merchant’s Tale.’

May remains the dominant partner and, “by writyng to and fro/ And privee signes wiste he what she mente.” The choice of the ‘privee’ to describe the signals passed between the two lovers provides an unforunate pun for comic effect, as it reminds the reader of the fate of Damian’s lover letter, thrown down the privy, “And whan she of this bille hath taken heede,/ She rente it al to cloutes atte laste,/ And in the pryvee softely it caste.” This reduces the nature of the romance to a very basic level of attraction and ambition; thereby undermining the honour of the courtly code convention. This is inharmoniously compared yet again with noble examples taken from classical legend, as January is ludicrously paired with Argus. With Damian and May identified with Pyramus and Thisbe, the lovers who eloped after speaking to each other through a chink in a wall. This classical reference, along with may others in the tale, are drawn from the Latin poet Ovid considered in Chaucer’s time to be the major classical poet of love.

Continuing the idea of May’s control and thereby undermining the code of chivalry and courtly love, May ends the tale remaining completing in control. Her vigorous and unladylike leap down from the tree. This is the final display of unconventional courtly love behaviour, which is presented by the Merchant, reaffirming his view of the code.

In addition, the Merchant subverts the code of courtly love, by making comparisons between Joseph and Mary and May and January. May’s invocation of the Virgin Mary, Queen of Heaven, this reminds the reader of the comparisons and contrasts between the superficially similar Joseph and Mary and January and May, which has been threaded throughout the tale.

All of these references and comparisons sprinkled throughout the tale emphasise the unconventional nature of the love triangle presented by the Merchant and complete disdain for the honourable courtly love code.

In addition, the language used to describe May is indicative of the disdain held by the Merchant of the clergy and what they represent and with that the courtly love code. More often that not her May’s constant reference to God is juxtaposed with her completing the reverse action, or holding the opposing view. For instance, when May asks January to trust her, she says, “for Goddes sake truste me.” Furthermore, the language used to describe May is indicative of the Merchant’s view of her. For example, May as is customary is described as ‘fresshe’ before she begins to speak. Chaucer parodies the conventions of courtly love as May gives voice to a mortal longing. By this point in the tale, ‘fresshe’ connotes sexual readiness rather than innocence and May’s longing for pears, with all their sexual symbolism ironically conceals an evident longing to have sex with Damian. Which of course defies the convention of courtly love as the code required “the lovers to remain faithful despite all obstacles.”

In conclusion, the Merchant subverts the courtly love code through various narrative devices such as providing inappropriate parallels between his characters and his chosen exemplar thereby undermining the literary convention. In addition, his use of language further undermines the code. Throughout the tale the Merchant employs various dramatic devices, which subvert the code resulting in a comic effect, which further challenges the courtly love code.