In the 16th Century a change in the social placing of the main character occurred. No longer were the protagonists only men of great status and stature but simple men who suffered a great downfall. Miller wrote in 'The Theatre Essays of Arthur Miller' that to say that tragedy depended upon the noble status of the protagonist was nothing more than "a clinging to the outward forms of tragedy."β Eddie is identified as the hero of the play when Alfieri introduces him in his first speech. The stage directions show he is an ordinary man "EDDIE has appeared and has been pitching coins with the men and is highlighted among them". Alfieri says, "This one's name was Eddie Carbone, a longshoreman working on the docks from Brooklyn Bridge to the breakwater where the open sea begins" (page 4).
At first, Eddie Carbone does appear to be almost noble. He receives great respect from his family and neighbourhood and seems to be a traditional, protective and kind husband. However, during the first act we learn that there is a darker reason for his intense protectiveness towards his niece, Catherine, which only his wife, Beatrice, fully recognises. Incest is also a major theme in Greek Tragedy, most famously shown in Oedipus Rex by Sophocles. Eddie's lust for Catherine and obsession with her become evident upon the arrival of Beatrice's cousins, Marco and Rodolfo. Their role in the developing action reveals the true relationship between Catherine and Eddie and shows the audience that Eddie is anything but noble. Their arrival is also a catalyst in Catherine's development from child to adult.
Catherine shows immediate interest in Rodolfo, the younger brother, causing Eddie to become rapidly jealous. This is the beginning of his change in character and her growing up and away from him. Immediately she sees Rodolfo, she says "(wondrously) How come he's so dark and you're so light, Rodolfo?"(page 17). From this we see that Catherine is still a child, but the potential for adult sexual attraction is there, too, and the audience senses trouble to come.
Eddie never allows himself to contemplate that he could have feelings for Catherine other than those of a paternal nature, even when he is confronted by Beatrice. "you want somethin' else, Eddie, and you can never have her" (page 62). The way Miller uses the arrival of Marco and Rodolfo to change the course of events suddenly and to reveal Eddie's darker nature that will cause his inevitable demise is an example of the convention of peripeteia in Greek tragedy.
Arthur Miller also takes the convention of harmartia - a fatal flaw in the hero - from Greek tragedy. Eddie Carbone pays for his betrayal of Rodolfo and Marco, first with his downfall and the loss of his name and respect, then with his loss of the love of Catherine and finally with the loss of his life. Eddie had a deep desire to retain his reputation and honour until his very end, but was his fatal flaw his pride that led him to betray Rodolfo or his love for his niece? His act of betrayal cannot be morally defended, but legally he does nothing wrong; in fact he acts as a law abiding citizen. Can we say that Eddie could have prevented his feelings from destroying him? He may be the adult compared to Catherine, but his feelings are of a very deep and strong nature. Should a man be punished for loving someone?
These are cultural questions that Miller raises about the role of the father in the families of Italian immigrant communities. Is the fatal flaw not in Eddie, but within the community and caused by the history of Sicily and the role of the Italian Mafia in America that are referred to by Alfieri in his opening speech. In using the concept of harmartia to expose the cultural and social weaknesses in a community that destroys its own people, Miller has used a Greek convention to make a modern tragedy. Alternatively, one could argue that the tragedy is caused by the conflict between trying to maintain traditional Italian values within a very different society, where individuals are driven by desire to achieve the American Dream. Rodolfo and Catherine start to live the American dream, whilst Eddie and Marco cling to their Italian roots. Rodolfo buys American records and clothes as he prepares to settle in America, whilst Marco sends his money home to his family in Italy as is expected of a good Italian father. When Marco wants a traditionally Sicilian blood revenge against Eddie, Rodolfo argues with him for the first time and wants him to compromise so that he can have a future in America:
"MARCO - In my country he would be dead now. He would not live this long.
ALFIERI - All right, Rodolfo - you come with me now
RODOLFO - …Marco - promise the man. Please, I want you to watch the wedding. How can I be married and you're in here? Please, you're not going to do anything; you know you're not." (page 58)
In the lead character's final moments he realises that he has lost everything, his name, the woman he could not have, but most importantly, Beatrice the one person who was always there for him. His anagnorsis becomes apparent in his last words, "My B.!", these two words appear like an apology to his wife, the moment where everything become clear to him. However, it would be an exaggeration to argue that he gains enlightenment or knowledge at the end and Alfieri tells us that his death was "useless" (page 64). Eddie's self destruction is best shown when he demands that Marco should give him back his name, "I want my name! ...Marco's got my name -..." (page 62), causing his own death by refusing to accept responsibility for what he has done.
In the conventions of the tragic genre in Ancient Greece, comic relief was never used nor needed, but it was common in Renaissance tragedy. In 'A View from the Bridge', the character Rodolfo, whilst seeming to give the audience some comic relief from the tragedy, also maintains an irreplaceable role as the character who allows and helps Catherine to blossom into a mature young woman.
Moments such as when he sings "Paper Doll" to the Carbone family have amusing aspects to them. When Rodolfo performs to the family, Catherine becomes enthralled, as does most of the audience. Eddie however is not at all captivated by the sound of this "punk's" voice. He stops Rodolfo singing, claiming that he will be caught by the immigration bureau. However, the audience will recognise that Eddie does not like Catherine being so engrossed in the sound of another man's voice. This is the deeper meaning behind Miller's use of the song for comic effect. It is comical not only because of the lyrics of the song, but because of Miller's choice of timing. It also suggests to the audience that to be caught by the immigration bureau will be Rodolfo's fate, so comedy is used to warn of future tragedy. In a production of the play by the Touring Consortium at the Cambridge Arts Theatre in December 2002, the actor playing Rodolfo used irony to reveal his naïve character to the audience. Again, as in Greek tragedy, the audience knew what would happen to Rodolfo, whilst the flaw of naivety prevented him suspecting his fate.
The basis of ancient Greek Tragedy is built upon the reaction of the audience, who should feel the pain, grief and fear of the protagonist. This is created through many dramatic devices used by the Greek dramatists. Members of the audience are allowed to know the outcome of the story before any of the characters and they also see the motivations of the characters' actions. In this way they are not only able to identify with the characters, but also to reflect on the causes of what has happened.
Miller wants the audience to leave the theatre filled with new aspirations and a deeper knowledge of how human imperfection affects the very core of life. He wants his fellow men to evolve into something better by thinking about the issues in his play. The Greeks felt that the audience was purified by the cathartic experience of sharing the tragedy and fate of the noble hero, but there is not the same idea that society can change that is important in Miller's modern tragedy.
Alfieri takes on the role of the chorus in a Greek play. From him we learn that there are two laws, the law of the country and a higher, natural law. He suggests that the first is limited whilst the second is morally superior and above the day to day concerns of the justice system. In the Italian immigrant community respect goes to the powerful father figure. Marco and Eddie share the values of a natural law based on the ultimate sanctions of violence and death. Justice and power go hand in hand amongst people whose society is controlled by the Mafia. Alfieri introduces this idea at the beginning of the play in his first speech, when he says "In those days, Al Capone, the greatest Carthaginian of all, was learning his trade on these pavements, and Frankie Yale himself was cut in half by a machine gun on the corner of Union Street, two blocks away. Oh, there were many here who were justly shot by unjust men. Justice is very important here." (page 4)
The Greek chorus is essential to the making of a Greek tragedy as it allows the audience to reflect on the happenings, to have a break from the intense tragedy and a change in dynamics. Alfieri's choric role maintains the voice of reason and compromise within the tragedy. Alfieri sets the scene with his first speech, which is much like the epilogue.
His first soliloquy prepares the audience for the "bloody" tragedy, which is about to unfold upon the stage. As a far more educated man who doesn't live in the Red Hook area of New York and who lives by the law of the land but understands the values of the Italian immigrants in Brooklyn, we find it easier to hear the story from Alfieri.
Arthur Miller wants the audience to think about Greek tragedy and evokes this by having Alfieri refer to Carthage. Although Al Capone came from an American town called Carthage, most people will think of Carthage in Greek times, when it was at war with Athens.
It is undeniable that it was inevitable from practically the beginning of the play that Eddie would repeat Vinny Bonzano's crime against his community. When Eddie ironically tells the sad story of Vinny to his family, he describes how the child informed the immigration bureau that his uncle was hiding an illegal immigrant, a "submarine". He was then expelled from the community. This shows that the laws of the community have harsh punishments. Eddie Carbone offers a word of warning to his family, "you can quicker get back a million dollars that was stole than a word that you gave away", (page 14). This is ironic as he is telling them never to do it exactly what he will do later in the story when he loses his honour and respect.
Alfieri also utters an intriguing statement in his first and his final speeches; "And now we are quite civilized, quite American. Now we settle for half, and I like it better." (page 4) and "Most of the time now we settle for half and I like it better." (page 64) Yet, in his heart Alfieri seems to support the 'natural' law of the Italian community of New York, in which pride and justice are dominant and no one will settle for half of what they believe is right. The Italian American community believes in following its morals and beliefs to the very end, as Eddie did. Alfieri suggests this is 'pure'. In the last words of the play he says, "But the truth is holy, and even as I know how wrong he was, and his death useless, I tremble, for I confess that something perversely pure calls to me from his memory - not purely good, but himself purely, for he allowed himself to be wholly known and for that I think I will love him more than all my sensible clients. And yet, it is better to settle for half, it must be! And so I mourn him - I admit it- with a certain … alarm." (page 64) It is as if Miller is expressing his respect for a Greek or Renaissance hero, but one who is living at the wrong time, when it is dangerous not to compromise. In his first speech, Alfieri talks about being "civilized" (page 4), - not in the sense of Greek civilisation, but being an American citizen who can "settle for half". His "alarm" is at his own emotional response to Eddie, which is more in tune with a Renaissance tragedy, than the objective view that he knows he should take as a lawyer working in America.
In his role as the chorus, Alfieri makes it clear that Eddie's death is inevitable. At the end of his first speech he says, "… and sat there as powerless as I, and watched it run its bloody course." (page 4). There is an increasing doom throughout the play and, as Alfieri says at the beginning, the law is powerless to prevent the inevitable tragedy. As in Greek tragedy, fate leads the hero to his destiny; he has to choose between conflicting courses of action but all will lead to his downfall.
Eddie believes he has to choose between protecting Marco and Rodolfo and protecting Catherine. The audience knows that it is the flaw in his character that leads him for misguided reasons to looking after Catherine. He persuades himself she is being used by Rodolfo to get American citizenship, but in reality she is being used by him (this is shown in the way she runs around after him, for example, lighting his cigar and the way he watches her walk from behind for his pleasure). Eddie denies her free choice and the right to grow into an adult. The audience knows that if he had looked after his wife's cousins and followed her advice to bless the wedding, all could have turned out happily, but to protect his pride and his name, Eddie is even prepared to end his marriage to Beatrice. He is not prepared to 'settle for half' and his fate is an unavoidable and 'useless' death.
Is there such a thing as a modern tragedy? Miller says he was influenced by classical Greek theatre and the nineteenth-century Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen. Like Ibsen, Miller hopes that the spectator will be purified not of the tragic flaw of the hero but of the ills of society.χ Unlike in a Greek tragedy, where fate decides the future of a hero, the author believes that Eddie and the other characters have the power to control their own destiny. Oedipus could not control his fate - even the decision to leave the country and be brought up as a shepherd did not prevent him committing the most terrible crimes of killing his father and sleeping with his mother. Oedipus is innocent and cannot avoid his fate. Eddie is guilty and has the free will to make different decisions. So does every person, and the audience is meant to understand this. This means that, even though Miller uses the conventions of Greek tragedy, this play is not in the same genre. It is only a modern tragedy in Miller's own definition that "Tragedy brings us not only sadness, sympathy, identification and even fear; it also, unlike pathos, brings us knowledge or enlightenment." He says "it is the glimpse of this brighter possibility that raises sadness out of the pathetic toward the tragic"δ. Tragedy is not the only genre that can bring "knowledge, enlightenment and a glimpse of this brighter possibility". You can do that in a comedy, too, but when a hero cannot avoid his destiny and is destroyed by fate or the gods; that can only be a tragedy.
α Tradition and Innovation in Tragedy, edited by John Drakakis and Naomi Conn Liebler, Longman Critical Readers, 1998, page 141