Chomsky {1975} et al believed that human language was assisted by the social environment, but this explanation alone was not enough he argued that children have an innate ability to formulating and understanding all types of language they had never heard before which he named ‘LAD’. Language acquisition device, he recognized that there were common linguistic features inherent in all languages and that children were already capable of finding them, these common linguistic features are consonants, vowels, syllables and modifiers {linguistic universals}. These features are at the core of all languages, and enables young children to quickly learn any language that they are
exposed to Chomsky argued that children cannot rely only on the incomplete samples and ungrammatical speech that they hear, and that ‘LAD’ accounts for the rest of the child’s learning of language. Chomsky criticized Skinner’s book ‘Verbal behaviour’ and rejected his theory on reinforcement as there is no reference to the role of syntactic rules in language, these rules serve a very important function of compiling words into sentences. Humans are unique in the way that language is programmed at birth to develop much like our own limbs and that systematic and careful teaching is not necessary, which Skinner’s theory suggests, with ‘operant conditioning’. Principles of developmental Psychology. 120-121.
One of the key features of Piaget’s theory relies on the comparisons of intellectual development with the evolutionary process; he uses a metaphor called the ‘epigenetic landscape’ to represent our acquisition of knowledge. He also believed that knowledge originates in the sensori-motor activities of the baby, and through the infants own actions are able to understand their environment. The child’s own perceptions would enable them to grow, but through patterns of activity their perceptions can gain structure. He called this stage sensori-motor development. One of the best known studies of Piaget is his conservation study, the pre-school child has to understand that the fundamental properties of matter do not change even though the appearance has altered slightly, for example two beakers of water are the same in mass so the child will understand that they are exactly the same, then one of the beakers of water are poured into a third beaker which is different in shape, the water level changes to either higher or lower, but the child is unable to account for the height or width that has now altered. When the same procedure is reversed and the water is poured back into the original jar the pre-school child cannot understand that the level of water will again be the same. Vygotsky has a different approach in cognitive development he believed that social interaction was very important in the development of thought and language. He recognized that language was very social and that children intend to communicate from the beginning, and that language and thought develop simultaneously, each having an influence upon the other. The adult/child relationship begins to move towards an inner dialogue and then on to verbal thought. The child begins to understand the adult within its non-verbal context coupled with the adult’s intentions. This is the basis which forms a basic understanding of the speech which in turn helps the child’s behaviour. In this way the child can control the relationship it has with the adult and the child learns to solve problems unaided. The adult/child dialogue is fundamental in preparing the beginnings of verbal thought. Vygotsky explored the concept of the zone of proximal development ZDP this is recognized as the difference between what a child can achieve in problem solving with adults and what they can achieve on their own, this concept is shown through stacking beakers, the child will attempt the task in their own way, but the adult would be able to guide the child on a more ‘systematic selection of beakers on the basis of size’. Contrary to Vygotsky Piaget argued that the difference between early language and thought was egocentric. That the child was unable to see things from another’s point of view, and that children can only begin to socialize once cognitive development takes place. Only then can a genuine conversation take place. Language and communication Piaget believed rely on the development of thinking not on social interactions as Vygotsky theory implies. {Ibid} 22-23.
Basil Bernstien examines the relationship between language and class structure during thirty years of working as a teacher in East London, he identified two forms of speech pattern, the restricted code and the elaborated code. The restricted code is specific to speaker and listener, it is shared knowledge and meanings are not in detail, sentences are kept short and unfinished, on the contrary elaborate code is richer in detail it is more universal and it does not have to said in context to be understood. Bernstien believed that working class children were at a definite disadvantage in school as teachers are educated in elaborate code and would expect the same of their pupils, most middle class children would have been brought up with elaborate and restricted code and would be comfortable with both. The American linguist William Labov {1973} studied the speech patterns of black children in Harlem New York and concluded that although their speech was not standard English this did not make it substandard only different, elaborate code can be to long and unnecessary and translation of meaning can get lost altogether. Sociology in Focus. Paul Taylor et. al. Pg. 297-298.
Another perspective called Symbolic interactionism looks at human action in terms of symbols language being the most significant one, Erving Goffman has given valuable insights in his work ‘The presentation of self in everyday life’ he has illustrated the meanings people employ to guide, interpret and make sense of their own actions and those of others. Goffman views people as ‘social actors’ we impress upon other people an image whether its ‘keen student’ ‘hard working’ or caring parent’ which he calls ‘Impression Management’ this appearance is very influential when it comes to how people view us, we also use props and settings to enhance our images for example desks with an office or a classroom with books, these impressions that we all engage in help us to become very skilled in defining others actions, we continuously look at the body language the facial expressions how we speak and what we have to say which all contribute to the overall impression that we see. Sometimes this can be seen through when our speech says one thing and our body language belies something else. We can not always keep up our impressions and mistakes appear in our performances which affects how others view us. Goffman has used a clever analogy with social behaviour and acting on stage although there is a big difference between acting and real life; scripts are planned and rehearsed whereas human action is far more spontaneous and people tend to act out more in habit, and only when an important or special occasion approaches are we more likely to put on a better impression. {Ibid} Pg17, 679-680. This discussion has centered on the different theoretical approaches within psychology and sociology and how all the disciplines have helped our understanding of human beings and their relationship to language, there have been some important similarities between different approaches but all of them have made a contribution whether we accept them or not, but it goes a long way to explaining the many diversities which accompany a complex subject such as language. Gross. Pg.27.
Bibliography.
The science of Mind and Behaviour. 4th Edition. Richard Gross. Hodder & Stoughton.
The Principles of Developmental Psychology. George Butterworth & Margaret Harris.
Psychology Press.
Sociology in Focus. Paul Taylor et. al. Causeway Press.