The Cognitive Development Theory supported by Vygotsky, Bruner and Piaget looks at the thought processes of children, i.e. the organisation of information and memory.
Vygotsky introduced the “zone of proximal development.” He proposed that a child’s make-believe or “dramatic play” allows them to create self-imposed rules, sometimes above their own cognitive ability. Vygotsky’s 'cultural-historical theory' says that the development of children is a result of their interactions with other children, parents, teachers and type of social environment. For example, socio-cultural events like Christmas or Ramadan.
Bruner built on Vygotsky’s ideas. Children are active participants. He had three modes of representation that he believed children passed through. The Enactive mode (0-1years), here the child stores information according to physical movements. The Iconic mode (1-7years), where the child’s information is stored through the use of images. It can be based on a sense of touch or feel. E.g. a particular touch may trigger off a memory. Finally the Symbolic mode (7 +), where the use of symbols, language and music helps store information.
Bruner proposed ‘scaffolding’, where children are helped to overcome a problem, either by an adult or older child. E.g. in my observation of children playing outside, there was adult assistance with the rules when playing hopscotch. The adult used “scaffolding” to mould the children into the correct rules (Appendix 3).
Jean Piaget (1962) was one of the early theorists who shifted focus from the social to the cognitive aspect of play. He upheld the ‘stage-based theory’. He was interested in the way a child’s thought process developed, and the intellectual motives why children played. Children’s play was drawn upon through their experience in life. For example, I observed children in a primary school playing in the ‘fairy tale’ corner. They used their experience of washing dishes to re enact Cinderella doing the dishes. “The fairy tale corner” allowed the children to engage in free flow play, there was no specific goal and it allowed the children to use their imagination to the full. Bruce (1991). (Appendix 4).
Piaget proposed children develop mental schemes, categorising and comparing one object with another. Children adapt their schema with new experiences. This involves assimilation (taking in an experience to a scheme) and accommodation (changing the scheme as new information has been taking in by assimilation). Assimilation is dominant in a child’s play. Bee (1999)
Piaget believed that children had to pass through four stages in order for them to develop. These are ‘object permanence’, ‘egocentrism’, ‘animism’ and ‘conservation’.
Around the age of 8 months children begin to develop the idea of object permanence. If an object is hidden, they will continue to look for it, as they know it still exists. Egocentrism falls into Piaget’s “pre-operational stage” (2-7years). Children under the age of 7 tend to be ‘self-centred’ in the way they perceive the world, unable to see other’s point of view. Some disagree with Piaget. An example is Lempers, Flavell & Flavell (1977). They discovered that pre-school children talking about a picture turn it around to show others. They understand that they can see it but other children can not. Lempers, Flavell, Flavell, (1977).
Animism also falls into the pre-operational stage. Children under the age of 7 believe that animals or objects have the same thoughts and feelings as them. Massey and Gelman (1988) disagree with this notion, their study showed pre-schoolers rarely believe this.
Massey and Gelman (1988)
McGarrigle & Donaldson (1974) said that children look at the social context before answering experimenter’s question. If a child is asked a question twice they may interpret it as having got it wrong the first time and therefore may change their answer. Piaget’s 'concrete-operational' stage (7-12 years) is when children begin to conserve object's characteristics. The child’s thoughts become more organised. However they are still tied to concrete knowledge. (Solving a problem through the use of their hands). If the child is asked if ‘Betty is taller than Mary is, but Betty is smaller than Katy, who is the smallest? Concrete stage children often become confused. However if they are given the dolls in front of them they are able to rank them in order to solve the problem. Piaget’s “formal operation stage” (12-15) states children are able to understand abstract ideas. They are able to think logically.
Creative play is equally important in children’s development. It involves activities such as painting and joining in with stories, an important factor for them to understand others point of view. Creativity in a child may develop into a hobby or later become part of their employment. Barron (1969). For example, I asked an 11 year old what they played. They replied ‘football’. I discovered that this creative talent that had begun in the school playground later became a hobby as they had joined a club outside of school. This particular hobby illustrates structured play, as it is an organised sport (Appendix 5).
Sigmund Freud (1908) believed that the most loved part of a child’s imagination is their play. He believes a child playing is comparable to a creative writer. Freud states that children place great emotion in their play. They take it very seriously.
Play therapy is one way of helping a child overcome behavioural difficulties. It uses creativity processes with artistic tools to enable the child to overcome their problems. Anna Freud, a proponent of the psychoanalytic approach believed the causes of a child’s problem could be found in the frustration of the unconscious mind. The use of repetitive creative play enables the child to play out their problems. This helps the problem to be recognised. Davenport (1994).
It is important for each child’s individual creativity to match its personal stage of development. Some may argue that the way of judging a child’s level of creativity is through the children themselves. Meader (1992) quotes:
‘ In order to be novel, the words or act must be unique “within the child’s repertoire of behaviour.” The criterion of appropriateness is met if the action is “pleasing or communicative or meaningful” to the child’. Meador (1992), p.164
Frank Baron (1999) stated that creativity involved the 'three p's’. A person engaging in a creative process, which produces a creative product. Children use objects in their play to represent things. Vernon (1970). I observed a structured play environment, where children were playing in the sandpit. It was set out as a dinosaur land. They were using their fine motor skills to build objects out of the sand such as dinosaur caves (Appendix 6). However Patricia Tallman Tegano (1991) believes that the process of creativity is more important than the outcome. The child may not have the skills to produce an end product.
In September 2002 the Arts Council of England appointed the National Foundation for Educational Research to convey a ‘scoping exercise’ into child development and their creativity. The Robinson Report (1999) stated that despite strong links between the arts and creativity it could not be completely related to arts. It can play a role in areas such as maths and science. Tegano, Moran, Sawyers, (1991) Creativity has recently become a recognised part of the curriculum in English schools. The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA ) stated:
‘The curriculum should enable pupils to think creatively and critically, to solve problems and to make a difference for the better. It should give them the opportunity to become creative, innovative, enterprising and capable of leadership to equip them for their future lives as workers and citizens.’
The extent to which social, cognitive and creative processes have in relation to play differs in accordance to practitioners working with children, such as the family and teachers and different theorists. Some theorists now combine social, cognitive and creative theories, e.g. the classical “recapitulation theory”, supported by Hall (1906). Humans re-live the evolutionary past e.g. children enact animal stages such as swinging. Modern behaviourists support the ‘arousal modulation theory ’.
Play is a way of sustaining a balanced level of arousal. It can increase or decrease our level of stimulation depending on whether the child is under or over stimulated. This theory combines the social and cognitive aspect.
Bob Hughes (1996) suggested that both modern and classical theories be combined into fifteen different types of play, each of which encouraged different areas of the child’s development. These are symbolic play, which allows the child to explore without going out of their depth. Rough and tumble relates to the child’s physical flexibility, though not including fighting. Socio-dramatic play, enacting real situations in a personal and social nature. Dramatic play, which relates to what they see in the media. Social play exploring social interactions. Creative play, a child experiences new responses and surprises. Communication play using words and gestures. Deep play, encountering risks and conquering fear. Exploratory play manipulating their environment. Fantasy, imaginative and locomotor play (where there is movement in any direction for its own sake). Mastery play (supported by Piaget), where the child controls the physical environment. Object play, a child uses interesting hand-eye movements and finally role-play where children use props and engage in socially. Hughes (1996).
In conclusion play has extensive involvement from and could even be said to be based on social, cognitive and creative skills. Article 31; 1 of the convention on the rights of the child says:
‘States parties recognise the right of the child to rest and leisure, to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the age of the child and to participate freely in cultural life and the arts.” Hill, Tisdall, (1997) p.332.
One study approach is that play aids the child’s cognitive development, others state there are social categories in which children have to pass through. Another view is more concerned with the creative aspect of play. Groos, Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner state that the cognitive aspect of play has a far greater extent of importance than that of the creative and social. Parten believes that the social aspect has a greater extent to play, whereas Meader believes that creativity has a larger extent. The extent upon which play can be a social, cognitive or creative process is dependent upon the differing theories and theorists. The most accurate is a combination of all three aspects.
Evaluation of Directed activities
In relation to this essay I carried out 2 directed activities. For directed activity one I questioned 3 children between the ages of 10 and 11. It involved asking children their perceptions of work and play. All 3 of the children submitted similar answers.
In relation to their thoughts on work 2 out of the 3 children stated it was ‘boring’ and 1 child quoted it was ‘hard, sometimes’. Each child believed that they worked at school. 1 of the children explained the subjects they studied. When asked if adults worked they all agreed, however when asked if adults play 1 child stated ‘ work gets more fun when you’re older because it is what they want to do’. This shows that the child relates play with fun. Another was not sure if adults played and the final child believed that adults played card games, showing their understanding that adults play in a different way to children.
In accordance with what the children played, all 3 stated a sport. For example, football. The fact that 2 of the children stated football shows that they were not gender biased. 2 of the children said they played a musical instrument. All 3 children believed they learnt as they played. For example, when playing football they had to remember the rules, such as ‘offside’. However they did not believe that they worked as they played. When asked about friendship groups each child established that ‘trust’ was an important factor.
Directed activity 2 involved me observing children aged 5-6 as a group both inside and outside the classroom on my first visit. I then focused on a group and two individual children aged 5 for subsequent visits. One female, who found it very difficult to understand information (child A) and one male, who was above the average intelligence level for his age. (Child B)
On my first observation inside the classroom children were making Easter cards. This illustrated structured play. They appeared to be sat in a group, focusing upon their individual card, however they were sharing their materials. This illustrates that the children have entered the phase of associative play. What was interesting in the task was the development of technology. The children now use paper drills. However there could have been a better selection of textiles with different textures. There were very often particular friendship groups that appeared to be same sex orientated. Occasionally these friendship groups would fall out if another child tried to join the friendship group.
There were traditional rules to their play i.e. turn taking, however the children devised their own rules in a way as they had the decision about the materials they used and where they put them on the card.
The activities outside the classroom on my first visit were very different to that inside. Outside they were practising their gross motor skills, e.g. running, whereas inside they were using their fine motor skills, i.e. placing materials on their Easter card. They played games such as hopscotch and tig, which are games that haven’t changed with time, however I noticed that some of the children called tig ‘alisio’ illustrating a change in language. When outside the children would play in a mixed gender group. Although they still played mainly within their friendship groups. There were provisions for their play such as lines and numbers on the play ground for hopscotch. Again there appeared to be traditional rules taught by the teacher or by other peers.
On subsequent visits the most popular forms of play were playing in the sand and the fairy-tale corner. The “fairy tale corner” illustrated free flow play, whereas the play in the sandpit showed “structured play”. Child B appeared to like things structured and appeared to be uncomfortable playing. As a group the children were sociable i.e. talking to each other, although both child A and child B found it difficult to interact and would often be left out of the group. When playing in the fairy tale corner there were no end products, however when playing in the sand there were end products, such as dinosaur caves.
In both areas of play there weren’t any gender bias. For example, in the fairy tale story they were reinacting Cinderella and a boy dressed up as a ‘ugly sister’. Both individual children and the children as a group showed schemata evidence. In the fairy tale corner children were able to re-enact the story of Cinderella due to their previous memory of the story and life experience of washing dishes. Also when the children were playing in the sand they recognised the familiarity of other children’s voices from their previous experience of them in the classroom. For example, when one child spoke to another they instantly knew who each other were and responded appropriately.
Appendices
1., On my first visit to a primary school I observed the children making Easter cards. This showed evidence of structured play as it was teacher led. The children showed social behavioural skills through the use of turn taking. Children had to use a paper drill to attach a fastener for their card. However there were not enough paper drills to have one for each child. Therefore the children would let one person use it and then ask the other child if they had finished so they could use it.
2., On a subsequent visit to a primary school. I observed children playing in a fairy-tale corner. One particular child appeared to be left out from the group. The children were enacting out the tale of Cinderella. This particular child dressed up in a costume, however playing alone showing evidence of solitary play. The other children were of no interest to the child.
3., I observed a group of children in a primary school setting, playing outside. They were engaged in the game ‘hopscotch’. Some of the children did not understand the rule of ‘hopping’ along the squares. Instead they would jump. The teacher then came to assist the children and by using ‘scaffolding’ in turn taught them the correct rules.
4., In relation to the cognitive aspect of play I observed a group of children between the ages of 5-6 playing in a ‘fairy tale’ corner at a primary school. This form of play showed that children were using their thought processes. They had used their life experience of washing dishes, to re enact Cinderella washing the dishes. They had also organised the information of the story in the correct way so their play flowed. They were engaged in free flow play, as it was child led and no particular child was the ‘leader’. They used their imagination to the full.
5., As Frank Barron stated a child’s creativity could lead on to a hobby. This was evident when I asked a child of 11 years what they played. They stated they played football. On further questioning they said that they liked playing it at school, therefore had pursued it as a hobby outside of school. The child’s use of structured play is shown through the fact that the game has set rules and goals.
6.,When I visited the primary school I noticed that when the children had tried hard in their work they were allowed to play in the sand pit. The sand pit was set out as a ‘dinosaur land’. There were figurines of dinosaurs within the sand pit and tools such as spades. As I observed them I noticed that they were using their imagination. They were doing this by using the sand to represent things such as dinosaur caves and to build mountains. The children were also using both hands in developing their fine motor skills. They were using their hands midline to their body illustrating structured play.
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33009493 Childhood Studies Year 2 Perspectives on Play Frasier Brown 26 April 2004
