Another important aspect of defeat for the British at Dunkirk was the demoralisation it caused. A demoralised country with a defeatist attitude had very negative effects during war time and also many soldiers now wanted nothing else to do with the war.
Source 14(ii) by Atkins supports Dunkirk as demoralising for the British by saying ‘many (of those rescued) did not want to know about further involvement’ , it shows the negative impact it had on the British troops. These demoralised soldiers were useless in war time as the source suggests when out of the over a thousand of rescued soldiers on board a ship not one admitted to knowing how to use a Bren gun (one of the most common types) to help on deck.
The source could be unreliable as its one person’s account of what happened on one particular ship, others could have viewed things very differently. The author could be demoralised at the time of writing due to fatigue which could alter his account. The book’s title ‘Dunkirk : Pillar of Fire’ shows an obvious preconceived view so the author may have only used sources supporting this to be more controversial and dramatic so book sales would increase. The date of the account is unknown making it less reliable as some days, 27th May, the afternoon of the 29th May and the 1st of June, there was heavy Luftwaffe bombing which could have caused the severe demoralisation. The source goes against my previous knowledge and other sources such as 14(i) which tell of Dunkirk Spirit. The source has some strengths such as I know that many soldiers were severely fatigued and it is a primary, first hand eye witness account. Also as it was written by a historian you would expect it to be well balanced and researched.
Source 15 by Richard Hillary links to demoralisation through the description of ‘tired, ragged men’ arguing amongst themselves and lacking morale and unity as many soldiers were very bitter towards the RAF.
As the book was released in 1941 the book would probably have been censored affecting its reliability and the war would be a sensitive subject for the public so to be too critical he may not sell many copies of his book. The author being British and in the RAF could cause the source to be bias as he seems patriotic. The title of the book is very dramatic showing he has his own interpretation. The author however gives a primary eyewitness account that’s balanced and as the book was published in 1941 the event would still be clear in his memory.
Nearly all of the troops returned from Dunkirk were demoralised and existed as names only, the evacuation was only reinforced as a military victory by Churchill. The publics’ reaction was more of relief that things weren’t worse. Other sources showing demoralisation due to Dunkirk are 1,3,4,7,12,14(ii),15 and 19.
The nature of the evacuation could also show defeat if it was panicked and disorderly. We know that at Dunkirk troops were not in their regiments, left to fend for themselves and seem panicked as they sometimes fought for a place on a boat to take them away from the chaos of Dunkirk.
Source 7 an account by Private WBA Gaze supports this view by describing the men fighting for boats rather than queuing, ’men up to their necks and swimming, fighting for the boats’. This shows a complete lack of organisation and a sense of panic amongst the troops also highlighted by the source in ,’and naval officers using their revolvers’ illustrating a scene of total chaos and panic, even amongst the officers.
The information seems reliable as the account is primary and first hand and although from a British author doesn’t seem biased. It also backs up my knowledge as on the 27th May the Luftwaffe heavily disrupted the evacuation which would panic troops. Only 7,669 troops were rescued on this day compared to up to 68,014 men rescued on other days of the evacuation. It also links with source 6. However the information could be inaccurate as the author could have been demoralised at the time of writing as many troops were very tired and hungry, others may also have viewed things differently.
Source 18, a draft message from Churchill to General Weygand from the 1st of June 1940 shows how disorderly, panicked and improperly planned the evacuation was. Churchill writes ‘crisis in evacuation’ and ‘enemy closing in’ showing panic, fear and confusion and that he is thinking negatively by also listing the British losses. The Prime Minister being panicked shows the true chaos that was Dunkirk.
The source is reliable as it is a primary source written from Churchill to his General so it wouldn’t be censored and Churchill wouldn’t lie as his General would need to know the true situation. It shows Churchill’s true panic, not a persona to lift the country. However there is doubt about the source as it is in fact a Draft message so the final copy could be greatly changed. On the 1st of June, the day this source was written, 64,429 men were rescued so Churchill could just be too involved in the evacuation to give a fair depiction.
With such a short space of time to plan this evacuation it was never going to be orderly with dishevelled troops left to fend for themselves and Luftwaffe bombing panicking the troops and left them just wanting to return to Britain. Other sources describing the evacuation as panicked and disorderly are 1,2,3,7,8,14(ii),15,18 and 19.
Using any relevant evidence, and your own knowledge of the topic, make a case for Dunkirk being a deliverance or victory for the British.
Dunkirk could be viewed as a victory for the British. We know that nearly all of the B.E.F were evacuated and many saw the evacuation as well improvised, well ordered and calm. Many regard Dunkirk as a psychological victory, for numerous soldiers and civilians Dunkirk boosted morale leading to a sense of bravery and unity known as ‘Dunkirk Spirit’. Public belief, trust and support for Churchill rose after the successful organisation of this remarkable evacuation, boosting his leadership. The fates seemed to be on the British side with a large number of unlikely coincidences all playing their part in the remarkable deliverance of 338,226 men from near certain imprisonment or death. Dunkirk was as much a setback for the Germans as it was a victory for the British resulting in Britain being able to continue to fight and Germany now participating in a two fronted war with Britain on the West and Russia on the East.
I think that the most important aspect of this victory was the military aspect. 338,226 troops were rescued including 139,097 French and a number of Belgian soldiers. Operation Dynamo’s objective, to rescue as much of the B.E.F as possible had been incredibly successful.
A source which verifies this is Source 5(i) written by Major LF Ellis. Included in this extract is the suggestion that more men then previously thought were rescued as before the actual start of Operation Dynamo 27,936 men including 4,992 casualties and 1534 Allied troops were evacuated from Dunkirk. As the source says ‘there must therefore be added 27,936 making the grand total of those evacuated by this date 366,162’ this signifies additional military achievement for the British.
We cannot however take all the source remarks at face value. The extract sounds highly bias as it is unbalanced with no mention of any losses suffered at Dunkirk such as the 68,111 who were killed, wounded or taken prisoner. It sounds highly patriotic perhaps due to being written by a Major who could have participated in the war or even the Dunkirk evacuation so to show it in a good light would show him similarly. Due to his job he may be loyal to the British forces. Another inadequacy is the author wrote it to sell books and as it was released in 1953 the war was still fresh in peoples minds so the book could be written to please the audience to ensure more sales and it may have been censored. The source also has factors which cause me to view it as reliable. For the book Ellis included occurrences between 1939-1940, which are quite specific dates to research so the information should be accurate. The figures mentioned also coincide with so support my own knowledge.
An additional source which shows evidence of military victory is Source 1 by AJP Taylor. Taylor quotes ‘Operation Dynamo succeeded beyond all expectation’ which characterizes a military victory for the British, ‘almost the entire B.E.F were saved’. The source also states that of the troops rescued ‘130,097 were French’.
There are however weaknesses in the reliability of the sources information such as, as Taylor’s information would be obtained from other sources if these were inaccurate it would affect the voraciousness of his figures. You might expect bias as the author’s British although the source seems quite well balanced but as the author likes to be controversial and recognized for being different this should be taken into account before considering this sources details in deductions made. Also because the book is written on such a long time period, ‘1914-1945’ he would not have researched his information as thoroughly as if it was on a more specific period e.g. exclusively Dunkirk. As a historian you would expect Taylor to be well researched and unbiased, he wrote under an unbiased title showing no obvious preconceived view and gives a balanced account listing both losses and gains for the British from Dunkirk. The figures used coincide with my previous knowledge. I know that the first day was seen as a failure with near 7000 men rescued and the total no. of troops saved stated by Taylor is 338,226 men, which is the same a source 10, of which 139,097 were French.
The military aspect of victory was very important in showing Dunkirk as a victory on the whole. A large no. of troops saved would appear to be the result of a well improvised and ordered evacuation, one which allowed Britain to continue fighting in the war. Other sources which portray Dunkirk as a military victory are source 4,5(ii),6,8,10,13,14,15 and 22.
Another aspect of victory is a psychological victory. A public with boosted morale would participate more in the war effort, this greater regard for the importance of everybody’s individual role was so called Dunkirk Spirit. An army with high morale are also a better fighting force.
A source which shows the psychological victory gained by the British people through Dunkirk is source 5 by Major LF Ellis in which it says ‘ ‘Dunkirk’ holds a unique place in the hearts of British people’. It also describes Dunkirk as ‘a naval affair in which civilians played so large a part that the people of England felt it to be also a family affair in which they were involved’. This united the nation bringing renewed enthusiasm for the war effort which helped Britain win the war.
I feel the source could be viewed as reliable as the author has researched precise dates ‘1939-1940’ which could make his information more accurate. However the author seems bias and highly patriotic and due to his job could be loyal to the armed forces affecting the reliability. He uses very dramatic language as he wants his book to sell well so he could be writing to please the audience. The book could also have been censored.
Dunkirk Spirit had a positive influence on the British people. Following Dunkirk over a million men enrolled in the Local Defence Volunteers and everywhere signposts were rearranged and barbed wire and beach fortifications laid in preparation for the German invasion many thought was imminent following the fall of France leaving the Germans only 20 miles away across the channel with the Channel Isles already taken. Other sources showing Dunkirk as a psychological victory are 1,4,11,13,14,15,16,17,19 and 21.
The nature of the evacuation is also an aspect of victory as a rushed, panicked or disorderly evacuation could imply defeat whilst well improvised, calm and well ordered could signal a successful evacuation.
Source 6 containing 2 photographs depicts Dunkirk as calm and orderly. The first photo shows an orderly line of men making their way from the Dunkirk beach to a waiting boat. The second displays queues of soldiers across the beach to the sea waiting for boats. The beach appears to be tidy with no debris or abandoned equipment and the supervised queues show good order.
The source appears to be reliable as its first hand and primary actually showing the Dunkirk beaches during the evacuation. Due to the large no. of people in the photos I don’t think they are fake and they coincide with my own knowledge in parts. I think the source may be bias as the author is unknown but was probably taken by the allies as no Germans would have been at the Dunkirk beaches during the evacuation. The photographs could have been produced to be used as propaganda showing Dunkirk how they wanted the public to see it. The date at which the photographs were taken is unknown which decreases the sources reliability as some days of the evacuation went more smoothly than others. As due to adverse weather conditions such as a low cloud blanket and smoke from the burning town of Dunkirk blowing over the beaches halted Luftwaffe interference meaning The Luftwaffe were only able to interfere seriously with the evacuation for 2 ½ days of the 9 that the evacuation occurred. This was the 27th May, the 29th May in the afternoon and the 1st of June. If the photos were3 supposedly taken at any of these times serious doubts about the photos reliability may arise. The scene displayed in the photos contradicts my own knowledge as I know that virtually all equipment was left behind by the B.E.F and there is no sign of this in the photograph. As 2,472 guns, 90,000 rifles, 63,879 vehicles, 20,548 motorcycles and well over 500,000 tons of ammunition were left behind on the Dunkirk beaches you would expect to see at least some small sign of this, so this source appears to be quite bias and unreliable.
Source 15, ‘The Last Battle’ by Richard Hillary shows Dunkirk as well ordered, calm and well improvised. The extract shows Dunkirk as well improvised by explaining the RAF’s superiority. It also mentions the Grenadier Guards ‘in columns of three they marched on to the pier at Dunkirk with complete equipment’ they sound very organised and troops with complete equipment obviously weren’t panicked enough to lose anything.
Hillary’s extract shows good reliability as it is primary and an eye witness account and the purpose is known. Released in 1941 and written very soon after the event, occurrences would still be very clear in his mind. It also seems balanced and coincides with other sources. The source could be unreliable as the author is British and seems to be in the RAF so could express bias views in his writing as he may be loyal to the British military. As the war was still on when the book was released the author would have to be sensitive with what he wrote and as he was in the RAF the book would have been censored so he wouldn’t reveal anything. The source conflicts with my prior knowledge as it says the Grenadier Guards took their equipment with them when it was usual for it to be left behind.
Though maybe not perfectly organised the evacuation was definitely well improvised as it was only decided it would occur 7 days previously on the 20th May when Churchill gave his approval and codenamed it Operation Dynamo. Vice Admiral Ramsey had on the days following the 20th May managed to improvise a flotilla of over 800 civilian and Royal Navy Craft with smaller vessels e.g. fishing boats, barges and pleasure craft needed to ferry troops from the gently shelving Dunkirk beaches to the larger boats. Other sources showing Dunkirk as calm well ordered and well improvised are 1,2,5(i),5(ii),6,7,8,9,11,14,15,16,19and 21.
Deliverance was also a very important aspect of Dunkirk as this large number of coincidences helped the British to achieve this Victory. A source which shows Deliverance in Dunkirk is source 7, Private WBA Gaze of the Royal Ordnance Corps description of Dunkirk on the night of the 27th May 1940. It states ‘the pall of smoke from the blazing town saved us’ this disrupted Luftwaffe interference as they couldn’t see where to bomb, illustrated in ‘nearly all of the bombs fell into the sea’.
This source seems reliable as it’s a primary, first hand eyewitness account. Although British the author doesn’t seem to give a bias account and it coincides with my own knowledge that on the 27th May the lowest amount for any day 7,669 troops were evacuated and the Luftwaffe interfered with the evacuation. As the source is only one persons account it makes it less reliable as he could have regarded the scene differently. Many of the troops were suffering from demoralisation caused by severe fatigue which could cause his negative attitude. Also we don’t know the descriptions purpose as if it was for a book showing Dunkirk in a certain way he could have altered his account accordingly.
Overall Deliverance was an important aspect of the British victory as without certain factors Dunkirk’s success would have been seriously limited. These factors include the decision of Lord Gort to ignore Churchill’s and the French Commanders orders and head for the coast, the halting of the German tanks which allowed Britain valuable time, the survival of the Eastern Mole from which the majority of troops were evacuated, the smoke from the burning town of Dunkirk obscuring the beaches from the Luftwaffe’s view and calm seas allowing the smaller vessels to make the journey. Other sources which highlight the deliverance aspect of defeat are 1,4,5,7,8,12,14,15 and 16
Another important aspect of Dunkirk as a victory are its consequences, it allowed Britain to continue in the war, it boosted Churchill’s leadership and it caused the Germans to have to fight a two fronted war.
Source 22 by Norman Gelb an American historian says ‘Dunkirk was the beginning of the end for the Third Reich’. It talks of Dunkirk being the first step towards the defeat of Hitler’s armies and for Churchill made his ‘position stronger’, in war time the leader needs to have the complete backing and trust of his public. The source then states ‘The evacuation of the B.E.F meant that Britain still had an army’, this was important as otherwise Britain would have been incredibly weak without an army to protect it. Hitler’s armies now could not be concentrated elsewhere where they were needed.
As it was written by a historian and the book being solely on Dunkirk the source should be well researched and as it was written in 1990 he would have had access to many other sources, this makes it more reliable. The information given coincides with other sources. The source however seems very one sided and bias which may be because the British were the author’s target audience so to please them would ensure good sales. The title ‘The Incredible Escape’ shows the author had made his mind up already how Dunkirk would be portrayed. The piece is secondary and second hand and as the author is American could be biased. The author makes far fetched comments such as Dunkirk being what caused Hitler to commit suicide without giving any evidence to back it up, which is a weakness.
The consequences of Dunkirk are a very important victory aspect as Dunkirk strengthened Churchill’s leadership and united his country behind him whilst also arousing American sentiment, this help from the most powerful nation in the world was a turning point in the war causing the Allies to come off on the winning side. If Britain had lost its army at Dunkirk Germany could have concentrated its troops on Russia and almost certainly Russia would have fallen. Another consequence was the effect on Hitler, increasingly after Dunkirk he made decisions that would have been best left to his commanders, to catastrophic effect during the Russian campaign. Sources showing the knock on effects of Dunkirk are 4,5(ii),9,11,13,15,17 and 21.
Defeat, deliverance or victory? Which of these best describes Dunkirk?
I do not think that Dunkirk can be easily categorized exclusively as a defeat, deliverance or a victory because certain elements of the evacuation fall into each of these categories. I feel that Operation Dynamo was a success for the British as its objective was to rescue as much of the B.E.F as possible. Churchill had predicted 30,000 men could be rescued, while Admiral Ramsey had hoped for 45,000 but in reality 338,226 troops were saved, nearly the entire of the B.E.F. As AJP Taylor in source 1 states ‘Operation Dynamo succeeded beyond all expectation’.
In source 12 from Churchill’s speech it says ‘ there was a victory inside this deliverance which should be noted’. Dunkirk was a deliverance as it was due to a large number of unlikely factors that all combined to save thousands of lives. The fates did seem to be on the side of the British with calm seas allowing the smaller vessels to make the journey, Lord Gort ignoring Churchill and the French Commanders and heading for the coast, the wind direction causing smoke form the burning town of Dunkirk combining with the low cloud ceiling to obscure the beaches from the Luftwaffe for most of the evacuation and even the mysterious halting of the German tanks which allowed the British vital time for the evacuation to take place. There have been many wild theories as to why this occurred such as Hitler actually wanted to spare the British troops but to this day no real explanation has been given for the halt order.
The evacuation can not truthfully be called a victory although Operation Dynamo seems to be. To evacuate is to withdraw from the field of battle knowing that to fight would result in certain defeat, ‘wars are not won by evacuations ’.
I believe however that Dunkirk was as Allan Bullock in Source 9 describes ‘a remarkable improvised evacuation’. L.F Ellis in Source 5 supports this idea through saying ‘when from a half destroyed harbour and a few miles of open beach, a third of a million men were brought away in spite of all that the strongest army and air force in the world at that date could do to stop it’. I don’t however believe that the evacuation was orderly and calm. The soldiers, fearing for their life, left to fend for themselves and severely fatigued would most probably have been panicking and demoralised. It was also a very costly affair for the British government. Nearly the entirety of their army’s equipment was left abandoned in Northern France and would need to be replaced. The cost of this would be astronomical.
The lives saved at Dunkirk however would not have been able to be replaced. The nation may have viewed Dunkirk as such a triumph as they cared much more about their soldiers returning safely to them then replaceable machinery. Basil Collier in Source 4 explains that Dunkirk ‘roused the inhabitants of these islands to an awareness of their danger and a determination to avert it by all means in their power’. The people of the country filled with so called ‘Dunkirk Spirit’ united behind Churchill. I think Churchill used Dunkirk as an excuse to rally the country but this caused a psychological victory for the British people which helped them in the war effort.
Britain suffered a massive military defeat in terms of the equipment, ships and aircraft lost but thousands of men were delivered from death or captivity at the hands of the Nazis. Ultimately ‘Dunkirk’ will always be remembered as a victorious event in British history.