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Fall of the Roman Republic Summary

Option M        Rome: The fall of the Republic 78 – 31 BC

Principal Focus: Through an investigation of the archaeological and written sources for the fall of the Republic 78 – 31 BC, students learn about significant developments, forces and relevant historiographical issues that shaped the historical period.

Students learn about:

1        Political developments in the late Republic

  • legacy of Sulla
  • Pompey: significance of military and political career
  • significance of the consulship of Pompey and Crassus in 70 BC
  • role and significance of Cicero
  • First Triumvirate: aims, roles and responsibilities of Caesar, Pompey and Crassus
  • activities and breakdown of the First Triumvirate
  • political crises: role of the Senate; use of the army for political purposes; urban violence
  • role of optimates, populares
  • Caesar and Pompey: political competition and responsibility for outbreak of the Civil War 49–45 BC
  • significance of Caesar’s dictatorship

2        Wars and expansion

  • Pompey’s extraordinary commands and the Eastern Settlement
  • Caesar’s military activities in Gaul, Germany and Britain
  • significance of the Mithridatic and Parthian wars

3        Fall of the Republic

  • impact of Caesar’s assassination
  • formation, activities and breakdown of the Second Triumvirate
  • rivalry and Civil War between Mark Antony and Octavian: role of Cleopatra VII; Battle of Actium

1. Political Developments in the Late Republic

Legacy of Sulla

  • In 88, first civil war in Rome was fought between Marius and Sulla; ended in 82 with defeat of Marius.
  • Sulla now introduced proscriptions.
  • Sulla had the Tribal Assembly vote to give him powers of a dictator (82) for purpose of restoring the Republic. He achieved this through military force and violence.
  • Use of client professional armies was one way of guaranteeing political dominance.
  • Sulla tried to revive Republican constitution and increase authority of Senate.
  • Rome continued to face foreign threats, which meant generals with armies had to be found. Many of these generals gained prominence in future (e.g. Pompey/Caesar).

Pompey: significance of military and political career

  • Pompey was a general who often switched allegiances, supporting whoever would give him political power. Generals in Rome were able to ignore the cursus honorum, as, in extraordinary circumstances, they could be appointed special powers without ever holding office. They army gave Pompey the political power he sought.
  • Military/political career of Pompey was exceptional and extraordinary. He was given proconsular and propraetorian commands without holding the qualifying office; he was consul in 70, seven years before the legal age.
  • His extraordinary commands (e.g. lex Gabinia) gave him sweeping powers/authority which was unequalled at the time. Height of Pompey’s political power came in sole consulship of 52:
  • Sole consul with immense wealth/power.
  • Proconsular imperium as controller of grain supply.
  • Loyal soldiers/clients throughout the empire.
  • Proconsular command of Libya and two Spains.

Significance of the consulship of Pompey and Crassus in 70 BC

  • Although both Pompey/Crassus had been lieutenants of Sulla, once consuls they sought to destroy what was left of his constitution.
  • Prior to election, Pompey stated his support for returning legislative power to tribunes. Was popular with people; Sulla had deprived tribunes of their legislative power and debarred them from office  Pompey saw opportunity to restore these powers, and effect it would have for his career. Pompey/Crassus wished to use tribunes for their own gain.
  • Pompey/Crassus also won power by promising reform of senatorial juries, which had proved to be extremely corrupt; they took sole power of juries away from Senate, instead sharing the power over them between Senate, equites and tribuni aerarii.  
  • Important pieces of legislation passed during joint consulship (known as Licino/Pompeian laws):
  • Restoration of tribunate to legislative powers and right of veto.
  • Revival of censorship. Censors immediately revised senatorial list, removed 64 senators and enrolled new senators.
  • Legislation concerning composition of law courts  at time was exclusively made up of senators. Was proposed that in future courts would have equal numbers of senators, equites and tribuni aerarii (group just below equites in wealth). Tribuni aerarii/equites had similar interests  would work together to keep senators in check.
  • Significance → dismantled remainder of Sulla’s constitution. Many of these measures won Pompey/Crassus great popularity.

Significance of Cicero

  • Cicero was a great orator and literary figure, and also trained as lawyer. Wrote many legal/political speeches, but is his letter which are most useful historically; they tell events during 1st century BC not only from year to year, but day to day.
  • Significance of Cicero’s career:
  • Was keen supporter of Pompey until his death; spoke in favour of lex Manilia and looked after Pompey’s interests while he was in the east. Supported Pompey up to and during Civil War, but reconciled with Caesar after.
  • Attacked Caesar’s ‘illegal acts’ during his consulship in 59.
  • Refused to join FT, although asked multiple times by Caesar.
  • Was exiled for putting Catalinarian conspirators to death without trial, but was recalled by Pompey.
  • Made various speeches against Antony after death of Caesar (Philippics), which Antony sought revenge for by proscribing him (murder).
  • Cicero was staunch supporter of Republic; in the end, his efforts to restore it cost him his life when he was murdered in 43 on orders of Antony.

First Triumvirate: aims, roles and responsibilities of Caesar, Pompey and Crassus

  • Scullard: “Its formation was a turning point in the history of the Free State, and it was … the ultimate origin of the Civil War of 49 BC.”
  • Cicero regarded FT as infamous/disgraceful alliance “an uniformly odious to all sorts of classes and ages of men.” 
  • First Triumvirate (FT) was unofficial, informal and non-legal alliance between Pompey, Caesar and Crassus. All three men had aims the Senate would not allow them to achieve.
  • Caesar saw opportunity (FT) presented; first had to reconcile Pompey/Crassus.
  • FT was seen by Crassus/Pompey as solution to short-term problems. All three triumvirs had problems which FT could solve:
  • Pompey: needed land for veterans after eastern settlement; needed eastern settlement to be ratified ‘en bloc’.
  • Crassus: needed rebate he had promised to equestrian tax farmers.
  • Caesar: needed consulship of 59; province for 58 to give ‘scope’ for his military ability.
  • Caesar gained consulship of 59 with support of Pompey/Crassus. Was able to solve majority of short-term problems from three triumvirs:
  • Pompey: agrarian bill for his veterans → however, was achieved through threat of force from Pompey, as neither Senate/tribunes would pass the bill.
  • Crassus: one-third rebate for equestrian tax farmers.
  • Caesar: provinces of Cisalpine Gaul, Illyricum and Transalpine Gaul for five years.
  • Caesar also passed lex Campania → harsher land bill which divided last public land in Italy into 20,000 allotments for urban poor. Strongly opposed by Senate/conservatives.
  • After consulship of 59 Caesar went to his provinces; proceeded to wage Gallic campaigns from 58-50. During this time, FT came under pressure; Caesar appointed Clodius as tribune, who used gang warfare to discredit Pompey; Pompey used Milo to retaliate against Clodius. Also, tensions rose between Pompey/Crassus; short-term goals had been achieved, regarded each other with contempt.
  • Caesar called Conference of Luca in 56  renewal of triumvirate. Was in best interests of each triumvir to maintain coalition. Led to 2nd joint consulship of Pompey/Crassus in 55. Gains for triumvirs:
  • Pompey: provinces in Spain.
  • Crassus: province of Syria; military campaign in 55/53.
  • Caesar: extension of command in Gaul for further five years.
  • Pompey/Crassus gained consulship through bribery/violence.

Breakdown of the FT

  •  Death of Pompey’s wife Julia (Caesar’s daughter) meant that Pompey was no longer bound to Caesar; Caesar attempted to maintain coalition (e.g. through offering great-niece Octavia to Pompey); Pompey rebuffed his efforts and began shifting his position to optimates, although still maintained coalition with Caesar for time being.
  • In middle of 53, news reached Rome that Romans had been defeated by Parthians and Crassus had been killed. Crassus’ death made split of coalition more likely.
  • Pompey became sole consul in 52 and passed variety of laws which worried Caesar:
  • Law against public violence.
  • Law stipulating a five-year interval between urban magistracies and provincial commands.
  • Law demanding all candidates must appear in person at election  made Caesar suspicious of Pompey’s motives. Caesar planned to stand in absentia to avoid prosecution; changed by Pompey.
  • In 52 Pompey remained halfway between Caesar/optimates, although he was moving more towards optimates. Caesar’s enemies wished to bring him to Rome and prosecute him; Pompey would have to pick a side, and when war came in 49 he sided with Senate.

Some historians indicate that Caesar was actually offered a compromise but he senate to ratify (legalise) his laws before his departure from Rome in 58.  

  • Pompey and Crassus, was a man of EGO: self-promotion and glorification were not only craved but were essential to their power.

Believed that Caesar wanted complete power therefore he wanted the civil war.

Political Crises: role of the Senate; use of the army for political purposes; urban violence

Role of the Senate

  • Senate was the body which advised magistrates. Different roles:
  • Dealt with foreign relations.
  • Prepared legislation.
  • Administered finances.
  • Supervised state religion.
  • By 1st century BC, Senate was virtual govt. of Rome:
  • Had influence/control over assemblies and magistrates.
  • Could not make laws but issued decrees (senatus consulta).
  • Senate gave special commands to generals; however, could not stop a general using the army to further his ambitions. Once military situation was settled, Senate was powerless to stop generals demanding more power and using their armies as a threat.
  • This inability to control generals/armies allowed circumstances to develop which helped bring about fall of the Republic.
  • Problems of Senate (in general):
  • Did not provide strong leadership.
  • Was corrupt/inefficient
  • Only interested in its own power/prestige
  • Unable to cope with strong generals
  • Breakdown of law/order on streets
  • Foreign policy was weak.

Use of the army for political purposes

  • During 1st century BC Rome, was interdependence between army and political power. Generals such as Pompey, Caesar, Antony and Octavian showed that political power came from control of successful armies.
  • Successful generals used threat of their armies to achieve greater political power.
  • Veterans became important (e.g. in terms of their loyalty) in passing legislation through Assembly.
  • Senate was threatened/intimidated by armies, and did not refuse demands of generals.
  • Generals were able to amass great wealth from their foreign wars, and garnered themselves great prestige and popularity, and a large client base from their victories.
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Urban violence

  • General characteristic of this time period was urban violence in form of riots/civil unrest. Problem was so bad that elections could not be held in 53-52. Law/order was breaking down, and Senate could not stop it.
  • Example:
  • Tribune Clodius arranged gangs to terrorise enemies of triumvirs of FT.
  • Pompey arranged his own rival gang, led by tribune Milo. Milo’s gang murdered Clodius.
  • Widespread rioting in Rome in this period.
  • Problem was so bad that Senate passed Senatus consultum ultimum, giving Pompey sole consulship of 52 to deal with disorder.

Role of optimates, ...

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