To what extent did nationalism within the Austria-Hungarian Empire contribute to the outbreak of war in 1914?

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Questions on World War One

To what extent did nationalism within the Austria-Hungarian Empire contribute to the outbreak of war in 1914?

                

        Nationalism within Austria-Hungary: a struggle for self-determination. But Austria-Hungary was brave to meet the challenge and to struggle for preservation of the Empire.

Result: internally, proposal of extending the dual rule to a triple or a quadruple one; externally, nationalistic rivalries started between Austria and Serbia, between Austria and Russia. Her solution was to annex neighbouring states having fellow peoples within the Empire. It contributed to the outbreak of Austro-Serbian War.

But the extension of these rivalries was caused by the alliance system and militarism.

        If nationalism within Austria-Hungary contributed, so did nationalism of other powers (Pan-Slavism, Greater Serbia Movement, French Revanchism, Pan-Germanism, etc.)

     The Great War was caused by a complexity of conflicts.

To what extent was nationalism a disruptive force in Europe during the period 1900-1914?

 Nationalism

1. Nationalism aimed at national independence in initial stage

2. It looked to national expansion and domination

 National conflicts in the period of 1900-1914

1. Nationalism in the Balkans to struggle to remain independent.

    - they wanted to dismember the Ottoman Empire and drive the Turks from Europe. To save the Empire, the Young Turks seized control and wanted to re-establish its formal vigor.

2. Russian nationalism aimed at having an outlet to the Mediterranean by helping the Balkans people with a Pan-Slav movement.

3. Pan-Slav movement was not only a threat to the Turks but also a threat to the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Austrian nationalism showed its attempts to dominate Balkans.

4. German nationalism under Kaiser William II meant ruthless expansion. Pan-Germanism came to a clash with Pan-Slavism of in the Balkans.

5. German aggressive nationalism also showed in her naval conflicts with Britain and imperial rivalries with Britain and France.

6. French nationalism aimed at revenge and making alliance to break her isolation by Bismarck's diplomatic alignments.

 Events resulted from conflicting nationalism

1. Formation of rival camps

2. Moroccan Crises, 1905, 1911

3. Bosnian crisis, 1908

4. Berlin-Baghdad Railway crisis

5. Two Balkan Wars, 1912-13.

6. Sarajevo Incident, 1914.

These Rivalries led to the outbreak of a Great War. In fact no country wanted war. Failure to solve the problems by diplomacy stemmed not only from nationalism.

 There was another disruptive force

1. militarism

  - militarism in Germany alarmed other Powers leading to armament race.

  - British naval construction intensified armament race.

  - France joined armament race.

  - Both Hague Conference and Second International failed to champion peace.

  - Militarism rivalry split Europe into Triple Alliance and Triple Entente.

  - Military plans and laid in every country.

Results : Military consideration took precedent over political and diplomatic consideration.

To what extent did the Balkans settlement of 1913 sow the seeds of World War One?

The Balkans - focus of Austro-Serbian rivalries and places where Pan-Germanism Vs Pan-Slavism

The 2 Balkan Wars resulted in the Balkan settlements - Ambassadorial Conference (1913) in London and Treaty of Bucharest, 1913.

Expectation of various powers in the Settlement

        Serbia - access to the Adriatic and divide Macedonia

        Russia - concerned for her Balkan Allies and for the Straits

        Austria-Hungary - objected to any kind of increased power for Serbia and backed Bulgaria

        Italy and Greece - wished to annex territories (Albania and Macedonia) respectively

Results

        Cession of all Turkish territories west of the Enos-Midia line and all the Aegean Islands.

        Albania - independent

        Internal rifts between Balkan League - quarrel over the spoils of war.

Significance : sowed the seeds of World War One?

1. Strong Serbian resentment on Austria-Hungary.

2. Serbian ambition encouraged.

3. Bulgaria deeply dissatisfied and sought German support.

   Upset the Balance of power in the Balkans.

        - Turkey and Bulgaria sought German help increased German influence in the Balkans

        - Rumanians moved away from Austro-German combination

        - Serbia became more dependent on Russian support.

4. It intensified armament race

        Germany thought that a general war was inevitable and accelerated the increase in the strength of the German army.  Military leaders were tempted to war.

5. Pan-Germanism and Pan-Slavism conflicted in the Balkans.

Conclusion:

        There were long-laid conflicts before 1913 - e.g. Alliance system and armament (including naval) race.

        Yet the Balkan Wars did intensified conflicts and sowed the seed to Sarajevo Incident (the spark of the Great War).

How were the Balkan Wars caused by the Great powers?

Remote cause -

1. European nationalism inspiring Balkan nationalism

2. Congress of Berlin - Balkan nationalistic aspirations frustrated. Macedonia left as bone of contention between Balkan states.

Formation of Balkan League - initiated by Russia between Bulgaria and Serbia. Greece's hope of union with Crete frustrated by Power. Therefore Greece turned into alliance with Serbia and Bulgaria. On the whole the formation of the Balkan League was impossible (because of racial, religious, national conflicts among the Balkan states) if not for the Great Powers' action.

How was the First Balkan War caused by the Great Powers?

        The Great Powers could have prevented it; but they did nothing wholeheartedly to do so because of the hostility between Triple Entente and Central Powers. Co-operation was hampered - both sides remained inactive except a half-hearted Russian-Austrian warning against war. (Hague Court had already been founded)

How did the Second Balkan War break out?

Treaty of London - spoil not equally divided therefore leading to intense struggle among Balkan states - tension and hostility outcomed.

Albania created - Serbian hope of Adriatic coast ended therefore alternative - Aegean Coast.  (Thus Serbia more than ever determined to struggle for more in Macedonia.)

Conclusion

        The Great Powers deliberately caused and intensified hostilities among the Balkan states which had become too strong after the First Balkan War and which had slip out of the Great Powers' control.

"The feeling of Bismarck with regard to France explains the whole of his foreign policy."  Discuss.

Explain "the feeling of Bismarck with regard to France"

   Bismarck worried about

a. war of revenge after France's revival

b. republican/revolution tradition of France

How did Bismarck's foreign policy reflect such feeling?

    Principles :

a. isolation of France.

b. diversion of French attention to overseas interest.

c. kept Austria and Russia in peace so that neither would try  to seek French alliance.

d. kept both on German side on the principle of friendship among autocratic monarchies.

e. supported the republicans in France and tried to avoid conflict (prevent the return of monarchy in France which  would be more revanchist).

Result of implementing such principles in Germany's foreign policy

1.  Alliance System

a. Dreikaiserbund

b. Devotion to peaceful solution of Eastern Question -  acted as "honest broker".

c. Dual Alliance, Triple Alliance, Reinsurance Treaty, etc. -> a defensive system directed against France.

2. Colonial Policy

a. kept Germany in peace with all other European powers as far as possible over this question, even with France.   e.g. Berlin Conference, 1884.

b. aroused mutual fear and suspicion among the powers so that France would be kept with no friend.

More basic considerations other than just such feelings towards France were important in shaping his policy.

  Aim : a. Concentrating on the maintaining of peace and order in Europe in which Germany could develop her internal consolidation and her hegemony in Central Europe.

b. His policies reflected his such consideration more than just his feeling towards France.

Bismarck's philosophy of international politics

 - Forces of order and stability (represented by the autocratic monarchies) versus Forces of socialism and republicanism  (inspired by republican France).

  - Bismarck tried to strengthen the former in order to combat the latter.

  - He wanted to be the pilot of European affairs, as a strong force of order and stability.

Peace in Europe was his major concern

 - relationship between Austria and Russia had to be good, not just because he wanted to prevent possible drift of either to France, but also, or importantly, their friendship represented the solidarity of the force of order and stability. He did not want to see either collapse.

 - yet he also didn't want to see either becoming too strong to threaten European peace and Germany's own security.

 - colonial policy of Germany

    in the Balkans -> advocated peaceful solution between Austria and Russia.

in Africa      -> Germany's good relation with all European powers, but aroused bad feelings among the others so that Germany could be the pilot to manipulate international affairs in his hands.

    e.g. supported France in Egypt against Britain

          supported Italy in Tunisian against France

          supported Britain in Central Asia against Russia

          supported Russia in the Far East (to compensate Russia's loss in the West).

Consideration of Internal politics

  - related to his philosophy - conservatism against socialism

  - the need of industrialization

  - the maintenance of the armies (therefore there was the war scare).

Conclusion

        Bismarck did fear French revenge and esp. the possibility of a Franco-Russian alliance which would mean attack on Germany on two fronts. So he devoted much efforts to try to separate the two.  He was able to do so. However, he seemed to have over-emphasized France's threat. Afterall, Bismarck also considered other matters in designing his policy.

Show how Bismarck negotiated the Triple Alliance in 1882.  What were the purpose of this Alliance ?

        The Triple Alliance was signed between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy on 20th March, 1882.  Germany was placed thereby at the pivoted point of diplomatic relations in Europe.  All other agreement, ententes and alliances would be dependent on this particular combination. It was founded in two separate stages - with the signing of the Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary on October, 1879, and the entry of Italy as the third party in 1882. But its history began with the proclamation of the German Empire on January 18, 1871, in Versailles after the Franco-Prussian War. To consolidate his creation of a unified Germany, in particular internally, Bismarck required peace in Europe. This was not only peace for Germany herself, but peace throughout Europe which directly or indirectly would effect her. Therefore, Germany must herself play a leading diplomatic role, in fact, permanently exercise a controlling grip on the European diplomatic situation. To do this Germany had to put herself in the position where she was at once feared and respected, and she must have allies.

        There were two obvious possibilities. Germany under the Kaisers was an autocratic power - she had therefore the most in common with Austria-Hungary and Russia, who stood far more for the autocratic system than Germany herself. There were strong links with both.  Austria-Hungary was partially a Germanic empire with Germanic dynasty. she had, however, been ejected from Germany after the Prusso-Austrian War of 1866. she was, therefore, in her resentment a possible aggressor against the Prussian-dominated Germany. On the other hand Russia and Germany were linked by family connections of the Kaiser and the Tsar. In addition Russia had, since Bismarck's accession to power in 1862, been courted by him, first, in order to deter Russia from interfering in the course of events leading to Germany unity, second, after the unification to allow the new Germany to have necessary peace. Of the two, Russia appeared militarily the stronger. The Hapsburg Empire was showing obvious signs of disintegration.

        The decision to join Austria in an alliance appeared to have been taken in 1878. After the Balkan troubles of 1875-6 Russia had advanced to Constantinople and imposed upon the Turks the Treaty of San Stefano. It threatened Europe with a general upheaval. Britain feared Russia's occupation of the Straits controlling access from and to the Black Sea. This was a threat to the Treaty of Paris of 1856. Austria resented the creation of a giant Bulgaria in the Balkans dominated by Russia, who would, in turn, have easy access to the Danube. The questions were to be settled at the Congress of Berlin, over which Bismarck presided. Germany was to perform the humble task of "the honest broker" facilitating business between clients at cross-purposes, all of whom were the broker's friends. Bismarck carefully supported Austrian interest in the first serious attempt to woo her into the alliance. The big Bulgaria was broken up and the major threat of Russian domination of the Balkans was temporarily shelved. At the same time it was not only in the interests of Austria that this was done - Germany herself was anxious to keep Russia out of the Balkans in order to extend her own influences over Turkey.

        After 1878 there was a wave of Pan-Slavism throughout Russia.  Bismarck was accused of deliberately betraying Russian interests in order to favour Austria. This was, of course, true. It simply encouraged Bismarck to continue towards Austria. However, before the Dual Alliance could be signed he had to convince the Kaiser of its necessity. The Kaiser was initially against the breach with Russia in favour of Austria on the grounds of (a) the dynastic connection, (b) the support of Russia in every Prussian crisis, (c) the solidarity of system of order on a monarchical basis, as depicted by the "entente" of 1871 between Austria, Russia and Germany. This was, after all, the most effective defence of the autocratic system against the disruption forces of liberalism and radicalism. It required considerable effort to bring the Kaiser behind his proposal. Bismarck himself threatened resignation.

Join now!

        The Alliance provided for two eventualities, (1) if either party were attacked by Russia, the other was to come to its assistance with its whole military force, (2) if either party were attacked by a power other than Russia (i.e. France), the other was to observe a benevolent neutrality.

        How was Italy drawn into the alliance? She was driven in by her ambition in the Mediterranean and her colonial policy, and in the hope that she would be able to round off her process of unification by obtaining "unredeemed Italy" ("Italia irredenta") - Trieste and Istria, the Alpine ...

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