When Nicholas I became the Tsar in 1825, the pressure for the abolition of serfdom grew rapidly. The landowners were greatly in debt. In order to get more income, the rate of production must be increased. Yet this was hindered by the existence of an excess inefficient serf labour. The demand for free wage labour was greatly intensified when exports of grain increased and extensive markets grew in number. Emancipation of the serfs more effectively became inevitable. Therefore, by 1835, Nicholas I convinced that "Serfdom is a powder cellar under the State", set up secret committees to examine the means for the abolition of the serfs. At that time, the State peasants were allowed to be freed of personal servitude. They could use land in exchange for labour service or "obrok" (rent). But this statute failed to be effective.
Nicholas I's policy towards the State peasants was a bit different from that of the ordinary serfs because the impoverishment of the former meant a weakening of the state in turn. Hence, the government introduced a scheme of "government-supervised resettlement of peasants from over-populated regions in the free state lands of eastern European Russia and Siberia." The State peasants were also given schools, medical services and enlarged plots of land. Their tax burden was slightly lightened and military recruitment of them was improved. They were forbidden to be sold apart from their land and families.
These reform policy of Nicholas I towards the peasants didn't satisfy the peasants as a whole. They were convinced that "they belong to the landlords but the land belong to them." This belief greatly obstructed improvement in their condition even in Alexander II's reign.
"Alexander II ascended the throne at a time when the old system was breaking and when the demand for reform, among the educated minority of Russian society, had reached a revolutionary intensity." Luckily, Alexander II was convinced of the reform. He took the emancipation of serfs as a major concern. He considered it “better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait for the time when it will be abolished from below.” Early in 1858, the Crown land peasants were given land. Then in February 1861, Alexander II issued the Edict of the Emancipation of Serfs. By this edict, the household serfs were liberated, their owners received no compensation. Yet they still had to perform financial and service obligation to their former landlords. They were allotted with a very small piece of land but had to pay the redemption with interests to the government which had compensated the serf-owners in advance. This redemption dues had to be paid over a period of 49 years. The government's peasant policy was always in favour of the Crown-land peasants and the state peasants. They were given larger land allotments and smaller financial obligations than the serfs of private estates. And those in the western provinces, because of government's desire to weaken the economic position of the Polish nobility, were also granted favourable settlements.
The Emancipation policy did not solve the problems of the serfs and had created new grievances instead. To the peasants, "the Emancipation came to them as a terrible disillusionment." Many household serfs received no land allotments and often had to work as agricultural labour or seek employment in the cities. The redemption due was too high and those who failed to pay it would be flogged. Besides the redemption dues, the peasants were also heavy-burdened by the traditional poll tax, provision of army recruits and other burdensome obligation. Moreover, the land were allotted not to them individually but to the village commune as a whole. The power of the village commune over the serfs was thus increased. This was what David Thomson had commented, "Emancipation meant the abolition of personal servitude but the affirmation of communal responsibilities". The peasants were not allowed to travel or leave their villages unless with the permission of the commune. This meant that the peasants actually did not acquire full freedom -- this was what the government aiming at to prevent the forming of proletariat class which usually brought much unrest as in Europe.
Situation of the peasants worsened during Alexander III's reign. Yet only little was done. In 1881, the redemption payment was lowered. In 1877, the burdensome poll tax was abolished. The Peasant Bank was set up to help the peasants. The peasants were allowed to migrate. Alexander III, though reactionary, followed the traditional peasant policy of his predecessors in easing the situation of serfs.
Again, we saw that this policy failed to satisfy the peasants. It was because new taxes had been imposed. Those who had paid up their redemption dues were forbidden to withdraw from the commune. The peasants continued to be regarded as second-class citizens.
Nicholas II set up commissions to investigate the impoverishment of the peasants and to seek an effective peasant policy. Yet as David Thomson had concluded, discontent remained sufficiently intense and widespread to make reformist opinion more than ever responsive to the extreme Marxist and anarchist opinions that were infiltrating from the west.
On the whole, the Russian government genuinely wanted to emancipate the serfs. Now, we shall turn to see her policy towards the workers in this period.
Except for the last decades in the 19th century, the Russian industry remained in a primitive stage. The number of workers was few. So it was not until 1880's and 1890's when Russian industry began to "take off" in such a fast pace that the government started to pay more attention to the workers.
Actually by the mid-nineteenth century, the gradual expansion of industry had already created many problems: long working hours, inadequate wages, child and woman labour, bad working conditions in factories, squalid (dirty and unpleasant), rack-rented housing and inadequate sanitary facilities, periodic industrial unemployment. To tackle such problems the Russian government had tried to limit working hours and protect child labour in 1859. However, the nobles strongly opposed to it. In 1880's, the government again improved the working condition of the workers. Children under 12 were forbidden to work as industrial workers. Working hours were limited and night and holiday work were ended. Wages were regulated and factory inspection system was improved.
Despite the government's effort to better the condition of the workers, the workers were still dissatisfied. Moreover, they were prohibited to form any trade unions. Their employers still treated them badly. Without the trade unions, they were prolonged in adjusting to the rapidly growing industry. The clash between these two newly-rise classes, the capitalists and the proletariats, had driven the proletariats to swear allegiance to the revolutionary cause.
On the above account of the Russian government policy towards the workers and the peasants, we find that instead of solving all the problems, they gave rise to new discontents, which finally led to the Revolution of 1905.
The emancipation increased the burden of the peasants. Many abandoned the land and went to the towns to find work in spite of the government attempts to stop them. That led to the development of a proletariat class which under the western influence wanted to get rid of autocracy in their own country. Similarly, the Russian government policy towards the workers were still backward and could not cope with the rapid growth of industry at the end of the 19th century. Hence, when the revolutionaries approached the workers, the workers joined in their forces.
Though the inadequacy of the government policy towards the peasants and the workers was a 'piling up' cause to the Revolution of 1905, other factors could not be neglected. For example, the other aspects of reforms of the Tsar such as the education, military and judicial reforms had fostered the idea of liberty. The rapid growth of industry which brought about the modernization of Russia had also led to forces against the autocracy. The introduction of new ideas: socialism, populism, Marxism, etc., challenged the traditional thoughts of the intellectuals. The "Russification" policy of the Russian government towards other nationalities that were under its rule, and the rise of nationalism among these nationalities had caused great discontent towards the Russian government. Finally, the revolution was caused by the defeat of the Russians in the Russo-Japanese War.
Nevertheless, if the Russian government had a firm, clear-cut and far-reaching policy in solving the questions of serfdom and in dealing with the workers, the 1905 Revolution might be prevented to a certain extent. This is to say, "The Russian government policy towards the peasants and the workers was largely responsible for the outbreak of the Revolution of 1905.
