Reichstag furious, the result was deadlock. Elections were held. Bruning’s party did badly but he still remained Chancellor because he had Hindenburg’s backing. May 1932, Bruning resigned unable to deal with his dwindling support. Papen took over, but he was not an experienced politician. 2 December, Schleicher became Chancellor, but he could not form a government. In the end, upon the 28 January 1933 Hitler became Chancellor.
As you can see, the Depression was so severe that politicians were unable to provide solutions. This led to chronic political instability and ultimately to Hitler’s triumph. But one group of people also helped ensure that Hitler was chosen Chancellor - the conservative elites.
3. The Conservative Elites
Hindenburg had reservations about appointing Hitler. He believed that Hitler was a mad
‘Bohemian corporal’. However, he agreed to support Hitler because he (Hitler) would head a coalition government which would not be full of Nazis. Only three out of twelve members of the Cabinet were Nazis. Many conservatives believed that they would be able to check Hitler’s aims; they also supported Hitler because they could use him to curb the left in Germany.
Why was it that Hitler and the Nazis came to power rather than another right wing group?
The section above has shown the long-term problems facing the Weimar Republic. It has also shown the political and economic problems caused by the Depression. But this fails to explain why Hitler, and not some other extremist party, came to power.
Why did Hitler achieve such popular support?
1. Propaganda
The Nazis perfected the presentation and packaging of the party and their programme. Their propaganda was highly organised. From April 1930, Joseph Goebbels was put in charge of propaganda and he co-ordinated all Nazi propaganda at a local and national level.
What methods did the Nazi use?
(a) Posters and leaflets had always played an important role but now the electorate
was deluged with them.
(b) Modern technology was exploited. Loudspeakers, radio, film and records were
used. At a local level social events - sports, concerts and fairs were arranged.
(c) Specific leaflets were produced for different groups. Different messages for
different audiences. Many contemporaries commented upon the way they were taken in by Nazi promises.
2. Party Organisation
In Landsberg prison Hitler decided that he must organise a mass party capable of
winning elections. Before the Depression the entire structure of the Party was reorganised. Each area was carefully organised and membership kept increasing. By 1929 the Nazi Party was in better shape than any of the other right wing extremist groups.
3. Hitler
Cannot ignore the impact of Hitler himself. He was a brilliant speaker and this inspired a cult following of almost messianic proportions. He had great charisma and successfully used scapegoats - especially the Jews and Communists, to support his argument. He was the signal of hope for the German People.
The Nazi State 1933-45
The Apparatus of the Police State
Amidst all the confusion of the state and party structure there emerged in the SS, an organisation which was to become the mainstay of the Third Reich. It was meant to be independent, but its dominance of police matters, linked it with the state.
Himmler was in control of the SS, and as time progressed the SS grew in influence. This body was answerable only to Hitler himself. It assumed responsibility for all security matters. It also (the SS) had control over the concentration camps and it developed its own elite fighting unit - the Watten SS
As the War went on the SS increased its power, dealt with internal opposition being granted wide powers to crush opposition. SS helped preserve the Nazi regime by its brutal and oppressive policies of law enforcement. Gradually, it extended its influence into the vital areas of military and economic affairs. It became the key interest group in the Third Reich.
The Nazi Propaganda Machine
It would be wrong to assume that brutal repression kept the Nazis in power. Under Goebbels, the Propaganda Ministry became a vital clog in the Nazi machine.
Methods used by Goebbels
1. Brought all broadcasting under Nazi control by creating the Reich Radio Company.
He arranged the dismissal of 13% of the staff on racial and political grounds. Government also made the wireless a cheap product, so more people would be encouraged to buy a set. By1934 70% of German homes had access to a radio. It became the means of mass communication; a vast majority of the German people had access to Nazi Propaganda.
2. Newspapers - Nazis brought up various independent papers; by 1939 they controlled
two thirds of German newspapers. For those editors who remained independent, Goebbels ensured that their writings followed the party line.
3. Goebbels extended Nazi influence to include film, music and literature; they all came
under the control of the Reich Chamber of Culture.
4. Also encouraged an identification with Hitler; the Heil Hitler greeting became the formal
greeting.
The Army
In any political system the role of the armed forces is vital to political stability, and upon occasions vital for a regime’s survival.
German Army
Army had an important role in society. The military elite enjoyed great social status and the leading Generals had substantial political power. This next section looks at how the army stood in the power structure of the Third Reich.
After the ‘Night of the Long Knives’ it appeared that the Army was in a very strong position. Many high-ranking officers believed that Hitler’s decision to destroy the S.A. was made because the Army desired it. Many in the Army initially believed that Hitler would curb the extremist element within Nazism and would therefore rule according to their interests and wishes. But the Army was wrong. They were all expected to follow an oath to Hitler, promising to risk their lives in his service.
Relationship between the Army and the Nazi state 1934-7
In these years the relationship between the Nazi state and the army remained cordial.
Why was the Army satisfied?
1. Re-armament programme
2. Re-introduction of conscription in March 1935
These two issues made the High Command believe that its pre-eminent position was being preserved. In fact, the power of the SS grew, whilst Hitler himself had little respect for the conservative attitudes held by many soldiers. But, between 1934 and 1937 the atmosphere was not tarnished by ill-feeling.
November 1937, the Hossbach meeting
(For more details upon this meeting - see the foreign policy section.)
In November 1937 Hitler outlined at the Hossbach meeting his foreign policy aims of expansion. Blomberg and Fritsch believed that Germany was unprepared for military expansion. Their doubts convinced Hitler that the Army leaders had no guts.
In February 1938, both men were forced from office after revelations about their private lives.
Blomberg had just married, but it subsequently became known that his wife had a criminal record for theft and prostitution. Fritsch was falsely accused of homosexual offences - on evidence produced by Himmler.
Results of this episode
Provided Hitler with the perfect opportunity to subordinate the army. Post of War Minister was abolished and Hitler himself became Commander in Chief of all the armed forces. The new Commander in Chief was General Brauchitish - a compliant supporter of the new regime.
The role of the Army after 1939
After 1938 the Army’s ability to shape political developments had reduced. Hitler was responsible for this as he forced the military to adhere to his agenda.
However, the Army remained an important body; this explains why the opponents of Nazism looked to the Army to overthrow Hitler. And they did plan to destroy Hitler. In 1938 (see notes upon German Opposition to Hitler) plans were drawn up to replace Hitler in the event of a European War. After 1942, a number of Generals took part in plans to assassinate Hitler; these culminated in the famous Bomb Plot.
After this failure, the Army lost its privileged position in German Society. It has probably never recovered.
The Economics of the Third Reich
Introduction
Before coming to power Hitler was careful not to commit himself to a specific economic policy. Throughout the period of Nazi rule there is a lack of consistency in economic policy. This suggests that their economic policy tended to evolve out of the demands of the situation rather than being the result of careful planning.
1933-9
At the start of the Nazi rule, economic policy was under the control of Hjalmar Schacht. He provided government money for various employment schemes - motorway construction, afforestation and public buildings. Also, Schacht presided over a period when unemployment was dramatically reduced.
Schacht was not a Nazi, but his economic skills earned him the respect of the regime. But in 1936, he annoyed Hitler because Schacht suggested that there should be a reduction in arms expenditure. This was unacceptable to the armed forces and the Nazi leadership. From this point on Schacht never enjoyed as much power.
In 1936, under Goring the government introduced a four year plan. The aim was to make the German economy ready for war within four years. This plan had Hitler’s support.
What was Hitler’s role in Economic Affairs?
He showed a lack of interest. But he expected the economy to provide employment and be ready for some kind of war. This said, he took little interest in the day to day running of the economy.
*This is a brief section upon Nazi economic policy. If you wish to find out more, you have access in most text books.
This section extends upon the section entitled “Politics and Economics”; they should be read together.
Adolf Hitler’s control over the Third Reich
The right wing historian David Irving described Hitler as “probably the weakest leader Germany has known this century”. Since writing this book (entitled “Hitler’s War”) Irving has attempted to defend Hitler upon a number of counts. But, Irving’s view was not just the product of a rather sick mind. Indeed, one of the most famous historians of the Nazi period, Martin Broszak, believed that Hitler was “unwilling to take decisions, was frequently uncertain and was in some respects a weak dictator.” This paper will outline some of the areas you should consider in answering this question.
Arguments suggesting that Hitler was a weak dictator, and how you could respond (if you so decide).
1. Hitler’s own personality
Hated administration, committees, etc. A strong dictator would have made it his business to become involved in the day to day running of the economy. But the argument against this view is quite simple. Hitler was concerned with (primarily) three issues:
i. foreign policy - making sure that Germany was ready for war.
ii. racial policy - ensuring that from German society
iii. His own popularity - mainly meant that Hitler wanted to see a reduction in
unemployment and the careful running of a propaganda campaign to bolster his image.
Since these three issues were working well, Hitler had no reason to become involved in day to day administration.
2. The system of overlapping agencies within the Third Reich
M. Broszak and H. Mommsen argue that the administrative chaos was an inevitable consequence of Hitler’s unstable rule. A strong dictator could have prevented such conflict.
But intentionalist historians K.O. Bracher and E. Hildebrand argue that Hitler deliberately encouraged rivalry among his supporters to safeguard his own position. You can also look again at the three points raised above.
3. Anti-Semitism
A number of historians have argued that in the years between 1933 and 1939, Hitler legislated against the Jews because of pressure from rank and file Nazis. A strong dictator takes the lead and initiates rather than responds to events. Intentionalist historians suggest that Hitler was behind these moves, and even if he did respond to Nazi demands, it was a policy he favoured. They point out that he made a number of anti-Semitic speeches. Moreover, Mein Kampf is full of anti-Semitic words and statements.
Some ideas about answering this question
When you look at foreign policy, you can use more examples. But to answer this question look at the section upon “Politics and Economics” and assess Hitler’s influence over the certain areas of Nazi rule. Think about what makes a dictator strong; control of the Armed Forces, influence over propaganda etc. Did these areas make Hitler strong or weak?
Although the Nazi Party never ruled like the Bolsheviks did in Soviet Russia, this did not make Hitler weak. Other groups were willing to support him. At first he needed the conservatives, so why offend them. It is not my place to influence your opinions, but I cannot resist making one observation. Can you pinpoint any major domestic development which was contrary to Hitler’s wishes? I can’t!
The German Opposition to Hitler
This subject has not come up in exam questions but it is a defined topic.
It is possible, albeit unlikely, that you will be asked a question upon the German opposition to Hitler. I hope that this short section will be of use.
In the immediate years after World War II, historians, including the famous A.J.P. Taylor, suggested that the opposition was only born when the Allies had all but won the war; this argument assumed that the German people only lost faith in Hitler when it became clear that he could not deliver a military victory. However, in the last thirty years, historians have uncovered an extensive, albeit an uncoordinated, opposition to Hitler. In 1939, 27,367 German citizens were imprisoned for political reasons.
Difficulties facing the German Opposition
Before any study of the German opposition is made, it is important to appreciate the difficult environment in which they had to work. Listed below are some of the difficulties faced.
1. The Nature of Nazi Rule
Enclosed in the hand-out is an essay upon Hitler’s popularity. You should refer to this as well as the information provided below.
Any attempt to overthrow Hitler would have resulted in immediate death. There were concentration camps to which people could be sent without trial. The Nazi security system was also very effective, which meant that every potential opponent was placed under close scrutiny.
2. Hitler’s Popularity within Germany
See the essay upon Hitler being the most popular dictator in history. *Next Term
The majority of the German population accepted Hitler’s rule. Also once war started, with a national campaign launched, many members of the German population believed that it was treason to oppose Hitler. Working amongst a population which accepted Hitler made opposition difficult.
3. The opposition in Germany had no firm base on which to work. Most groups, the
churches, the Pope, the unions and even Stalin initially attempted to bargain with Hitler. Had one of these groups rejected Hitler from the start, they would have had a greater chance to co-ordinate their opposition.
Opposition Groups within Germany
This section will attempt to show how certain opposition groups worked; it will also attempt to evaluate the strength of their opposition.
1. The Church
(a) Protestant Religions
Thanks to the work of Martin Niemoller several thousand priests joined a
breakaway confessional church. This reflected their desire to secure freedom or worship; it was not an attempt to overthrow Hitler.
(b) The Lutheran Church
This church was also intent upon preserving their own independence rather than placing themselves at the head of a coherent opposition party. However, some Lutheran priests did openly criticise Hitler; 400 Lutheran clergy lost their lives because they spoke against Hitler.
(c) The Roman Catholic Church
The Pope took an immediate defensive posture. Instead of questioning Nazi
ideology, the Pope sought to preserve the Roman Catholic church by coming to terms with Hitler in the Concordat of July 1933. This had the effect of blunting the opposition of Roman Catholic priests in Germany towards the Nazis. As with the Lutheran church, only in certain limited spheres did Roman Catholics confront the Nazis.
Examples of Roman Catholic Opposition to Hitler
i. Church attempted to prevent Catholic youth groups being absorbed into the
Hitler Youth.
ii. In 1937 the Pope condemned Hitler’s racial policy.
iii. Bishop Galen spoke against Hitler’s euthanasia programme.
However, these remain isolated incidents. Upon the whole, the church (whether Catholic or Lutheran) failed to take a decisive lead. Like many other Germans they privately condemned the regime but were not willing to risk their lives by indulging in open campaigns against Hitler.
The Left
Initially, the Left were Hitler’s most implacable opponents, but they faced a major problem. Hitler destroyed their political parties and the trade unions. This meant that they had to work underground or abroad.
S.P.D. (an opposition party) established their headquarters abroad. This had obvious disadvantages. Some trade union groups attempted to form underground movements in Germany but they were soon caught by the Gestapo. Many left wing members appreciated that they could not topple Hitler on their own. They therefore turned to other groups - usually the conservatives and the military.
The Communist Party
The communists proved quite skilful in the art of avoidance; despite many Gestapo raids their organisation remained intact. The orthodox German communists accepted without debate the line laid down by Party in Moscow. Initially, they attempted to build up their membership in preparation for the proletarian revolution. However, following Stalin’s orders, in 1935 they began to negotiate with other Left-wing groups in an attempt to overthrow fascism. Communists maintained a working opposition to Hitler. However, they were unable to secure mass support. Amongst many Germans there remained a desperate fear of Marxism.
National Conservative Opposition
This was potentially the most effective resistance to Hitler. It was a group comprised of prominent individuals or notables who worked within the system to destroy Nazism. Many members of this group belonged to the German establishment.
e.g. Erwin Planck - had been Papen’s former state secretary
Carl Goerdeler - Price Commissioner under both Papen and Hitler
Although they were detached from the masses, these men had the means of destroying Hitler. Their first opportunity came in 1938; fearing that Hitler was about to launch Germany into a general European War for the sake of the Sudetenland, a number of conservatives planned (once war had started) to arrest Hitler and impose martial law. The plan was destroyed by the Munich Accord.
Conservatives made frequent plans to assassinate Hitler. Paradoxically, once the tide of was turned in1942, the problems facing the opposition intensified; the Nazis had so alienated world opinion that the Allies became determined to demand unconditional surrender, and to brush aside overtures made by opposition groups.
Kreisau Circle
Opposition body founded in 1940. They met at Von Molthe’s home and planned ways of destroying the Nazis. In January 1944 the circle was smashed and Molthe arrested. In 1945 he was executed.
White Rose Group
A small group of students at Munich University. They called upon the young to rise up against Hitler. Ended in failure.
Stauttenberg Plot (July bomb plot)
Came close to success. It, tragically failed and all the leaders were quite brutally murdered.
Conclusion
Many Germans took part in ‘silent opposition’. This included:
a) Hiding Jews
b) Listening to the BBC
c) Reading banned literature
Such opposition, however noble, would not destroy Hitler. Although attempts to overthrow Hitler were made, the opposition failed to unit into a coherent group.
