The huge reparations saddled on Germany left the country in a dire state economically; printing more money to counteract this only led to hyperinflation (by February 1923 one US dollar was equivalent to 4.2 trillion German Marks). Most Germans- but especially the middle classes with savings- went bankrupt, and the public became disillusioned with the Government, as poverty and unemployment rocketed. The Government’s credibility was also affected by its dealing with the French invasion of the Ruhr. Passive resistance was economically disastrous, as the Ruhr was a prime industrial region, and Germany was crippled economically. The fact that Germany had not yet returned to the international scene by joining the League of Nations meant that they were unable to go to the League for help in rectifying the Ruhr situation. When Stresemann eventually called off passive resistance and restarted reparations in September 1923, it seemed as if Germany was buckling to the demands of France and agreeing the treaty of Versailles, and was opposed by many. Again, the Government had proved itself to be submissive to French and British authority.
All these reasons combined to cause the Weimar Republic’s downfall, and weakened Germany severely. Of all the reasons for the Republic’s weakness, the state of the economy was probably the most significant. Germany was paying enormous reparations, and many Germans were extremely poor, hungry and unemployed. They were also bitter towards the Government, who had agreed to the armistice and the Treaty of Versailles, and who therefore were to blame for the consequences, in their opinion. This bitterness sparked violence, and combined with the economic disaster of the Ruhr, as well as the Government’s indecision and lack of credibility, the Weimar Republic became very weak.
2. Was any one of the reasons (Versailles, Munich Putsch, Economic Depression, Hitler’s personality, Chancellorship given by Von Papen and Von Hindenburg, Enabling Act) more important than the others in Hitler’s rise to power? Explain your answer. (16 marks)
When Hitler was ‘poked’ into power in January 1933 by being offered the Chancellorship, it was the culmination of years of effort on his part, the machinations of people such as von Hindenburg and von Papen, and above all, circumstance. It seemed unthinkable that an unknown party in 1928, winning 2.6% of the vote, could win nearly half the electorate only five years later. And yet it did happen.
A major reason that the Nazis gained in popularity was as a result of the economic depression. When the depression hit with the Wall Street Crash in October 1929, the USA called in the loans they had given Germany to aid them in paying off their reparations. As a result, Germany was the worst affected country in the depression, by 1931 there were 5.5 million unemployed. During this time, the Nazis did nothing to alter their policies, they still maintained that they would abolish the Treaty of Versailles, destroy Marxism and the Weimar Republic, remove Jews from positions of power, rearm Germany and create a strong central Government. However, many people were severely and irrevocably changed in their attitudes towards democracy by the depression, and many people now felt ready to hear what the Nazis had to say. Many were becoming disillusioned with the Weimar Government, who were raising taxes and cutting public spending to prevent inflation. These were sensible policies, but were very unpopular with the public. When five major Berlin banks collapsed and businesses folded in 1931, the middle classes turned to the Nazis. The Treaty of Versailles had created bitterness, as Germany was vulnerable and weak. Combined with the poverty many Germans faced, political opinion became polarised. The Nazis blamed ‘the enemy within’: the Government, as well as Jews and Marxists. This was what the people wanted to hear: a party who felt the same way as they did and would respond to their needs. However, as the fascists gained popularity, so did the Communists, and this led to fighting in the streets during the elections of 1932.
However, circumstance is not the only reason for the Nazis rise to power- Hitler’s personality and oratory also played a large part. He was seen by many as fresh and enigmatic, compared to the ageing Hindenburg, a war hero past his prime, without a desire to make Germany great again. Hitler travelled by air (he visited 20 cities in 7 days while canvassing for the presidential election in 1932, which he lost, but managed to gain 13.4 million votes) and he was the epitome of strong leadership and political drive. This was something that was badly needed by Germans after years of weak, indecisive Government. Hitler was a great orator; his speeches were always delivered powerfully and persuasively; no matter what he said, people would listen. In fact the Nazis did on occasion completely change their policies to match public opinion. When he realised that the nationalisation of industry was alarming industrialists, Hitler pragmatically dropped the idea, and it was never mentioned again. This obsession with matching public opinion, rather than sticking to their policies, meant that they remained a popular choice.
Hitler used the Treaty of Versailles as a focal point of many of his speeches, blaming the Weimar Government for accepting it. He constantly pointed out how weak they were, and maintained that it was time to reject the treaty and rebuild Germany. This reasoning would have made sense to many Germans, they were already impoverished by the depression, but the enormous reparations were making them even poorer. Military restrictions imposed by the treaty made many Germans feel vulnerable and weak, while Hitler’s promises of a powerful Germany were very attractive. These promises were already being realized in the SA, the Nazis paramilitary arm. The Treaty also tied Germany to the USA, which was something Hitler detested, and his use of rhetoric and propaganda voiced these popular opinions to the German public.
A key reason for Hitler’s rise to power was his relationship with Hindenburg and Von Papen. As the Nazis became increasingly more popular, Hitler started to put pressure on Hindenburg to make him Chancellor. This was a valid claim, after the great success in the elections of July 1932, when the Nazis won 37% of the vote. Hindenburg despised Hitler calling him ‘the little Bohemian corporal’, and chose Von Papen as Chancellor instead. However, Von Papen’s Catholic Centre Party failed to make an impact in elections, which he called to try and gain more seats in the Reichstag and safeguard his already precarious and unpopular position. As a result of heavy lobbying by industrialists, including Hjalmar Schacht, a senior economic figure, Hindenburg had to accept defeat and appoint Hitler as Chancellor. This was to prevent public unrest against himself. However, to keep Hitler in line, he only appointed two other Nazis to cabinet: Frick and Göring. Hindenburg and Von Papen thought that they would be able to ‘tame’ Hitler, using his personality as a national celebrity to their advantage. Von Papen even said, after Hitler was appointed, “we have hired him!” As we know, the risk they took was a mistake, as it gave Hitler a ‘foot in the door’, from which he was able to take even more power, using his popularity and influence. This badly judged decision would in the end prove to be the downfall of the entire Weimar Government.
Hitler had been prepared for the moment he finally got into power, and was determined to make the most of it. Although it is not proven that the Reichstag fire of 27th February 1933 was started by the Nazis, it is undeniable that it worked to their advantage. A Dutch foreign national and Communist, Marianus van der Lubbe, was charged and confessed. This gave Hitler fodder for his very public fight against Communism, and put parliament out of action for a time, meaning that Hitler could easily get a law passed for ‘the Protection of the People and State’. The law suspended civil liberties, and Communists could now be arrested for treason (4000 Communists were arrested soon after). In the light of this Hitler was able to gain a majority in the elections that March, by joining forces with the Nationalist Party and effectively banning Communism (arresting 81 Communist deputies). This was all effectively an overture to his Enabling Act, passed on 24th March 1933, in which the Reichstag voted itself out of existence, giving Hitler absolute power. Hitler had been able to combine his extreme ambition with his popularity and celebrity status to finally fulfil his dreams. However, the SA and the SS helped him in his achievements, intimidating voters at the polls, and stirring up the people against the Communists.
However, the Nazis may never have morphed into the political machine that they became if it had not been for the failure of the Munich Putsch in November 1923. It was a failure for the Nazis in the short term, putting Hitler in prison, and banning the party. However, Hitler’s trial propelled him onto the national stage, and he became a media sensation; the papers claimed that he was ‘standing up to the weak Weimar Government’. While in prison Hitler was able to re-think his strategies for the Nazis, in the form of his best-selling book Mein Kampf, which included his 25 point plan. On his release, he propelled the party in a more political direction, and although initially they had little success, their heavy use of propaganda made them very popular among the middle classes and farmers. If Hitler had been able to gain power in the Munich Putsch, he could have been a ‘flash in the pan’, overthrown soon after by another violent group, such as the Communists. However, by gradually winning over the public in an orthodox manner, he was voted into power, and was even able to persuade other parties to vote the Reichstag out of existence.
Of all the reasons cited for Hitler’s rise to power, the most important are the impact that the depression had on Germany, and the decision by Hindenburg and Von Papen to appoint him Chancellor. The economic depression gave him an ideal opportunity to gain popularity, especially compared to the inept way that the Government was dealing with it. Ostensibly, if the depression had never happened, it is possible that there would have been no political climate for Hitler and his extremist policies. The risk that was taken in appointing Hitler as Chancellor is another key reason; it allowed Hitler to get into power, from where he could use his personality and rhetoric to take even more control. Hitler also made use of propaganda and the intimidating SA to win over the German people, but he had a lot of luck. The timing of the depression, the (dubious) Reichstag fire, and the failure of the Munich putsch are all examples of circumstance prevailing in Germany that helped Hitler. He was a great politician, but it is undeniable that he was greatly aided by fortune.