The Principles of Training

GCSE Physical Education (Sport & Coaching)

Specificity

The principles of a training program are the basic rules and ideas that must be followed in order for a training program to be of any help. Should these be ignored or not adhered to, the training done by the athlete would become obsolete and worthless. When designing an effective training program a coach and his/her athlete have many things to bear in mind.

The law of specificity states that the training undertaken by a person must be relevant to his or her sport. For example, it would be pointless for a top cyclist to do most of their training in a swimming pool. Whilst cross training may have its advantages in the “base” stages of a training regime, for the most part, training on land doing activities like spinning sessions is far more relevant and would also determine a more positive end result.

The idea of specificity does not just affect the muscles or actions undertaken, it also involves energy systems. The energy systems that are used in a training regime should replicate the energy systems used in competitions of that sport. It is always a good idea to perform aerobic and endurance training in one session, and to perform anaerobically stressing tasks in another session. This way a training regime would have far more effect than if the specificity rules were to be ignored.

Progressive overload

During my time spent training towards large events or competitions, I have often experienced what a progressive overload feels like. When you wake up in the morning, your heart rate is usually higher than normal. Your muscles feel tired and there is a constant feeling that you really need to have a sleep. It is also common to feel slightly “on edge” or unsociable, this is all part of being tired.

So it sounds like experiencing overload has very little advantages. However, a true athlete will be able to see beyond their present discomforts and understand that it will benefit them greatly in the long run.

Progressive overload is key to improving. It is placing stress upon the body for a specified amount of time and usually involves high intensity work done on a very regular basis. To phrase it differently, progressive overload is “over training”. However, in the case of progressive overload, it is controlled.

After any overload period, there is a rest period. During this time an athlete (especially cyclists) will do either no or very little training. Any exercise that is done is short and easy, no intense efforts are to be done.

What this does is allow the body to recover from the large amounts of stress that have recently been placed upon it. As a result of this, the athlete will gain in fitness and strength. This is how a training program works.

Reversibility

Reversibility is what I went through last November when I took time off training after I won the Nationals. It is the deterioration of performance and fitness as a result of my training being drastically decreased for a long period of time. The reason for this happening to me is simply because instead of training down, I just suddenly stopped, which is not always a very beneficial thing to do, as muscle can quickly turn into a flabbier substance due to the sudden decrease for its need. Basically, reversibility means no or little exercise results in your fitness levels dropping.

For example, in a recent test, 7 weeks of inactivity has resulted in the following physiological effects:

Significant decreases in maximum oxygen uptake – up to 27% - this shows the decreasing efficiency of the cardiovascular system.
Stroke volume and cardiac output can decrease by up to 30%.
Muscle mass and strength also deteriorates, but not as quickly.

Individual difference

As an athlete becomes more and more serious and professional about their training, their need for an individual training regime is essentially vital. What might work for one athlete may not work for another. A coach must therefore be very sympathetic and understanding to the needs of the individual athlete and must adjust training programmes to suit them.

The F.I.T.T Regime

The F.I.T.T programme is something that may be worth a coach considering when preparing and training an athlete for an event.

F = frequency of training

I = Intensity of the exercise

T = Time spent doing the exercise

T = Type of training

The frequency of training is an important element in a program. An elite athlete will need to do some sort of training every day. Aerobic or endurance activities can be performed five or six times a week, whether as more intense work such as anaerobic activities or strength work should be performed only 3 or 4 times a week as there needs to be sufficient rest period between each session.

The intensity of the exercise also depends on the type of training occurring. It can be quite a difficult aspect to measure as well, although heart rate monitors are popular for this. Training “zones” are used, where a maximum and minimum heart rate is applied and the athlete must remain within these zones.

However, the most established method of calculating the training zone is known as the Karvonen Principle. He developed a formula to identify correct training intensities as a percentage of the sum of the maximum heart rate reserve and resting heart rate. The maximum heart rate reserve can be calculated by subtracting the resting heart rate from the maximum heart rate.

There is also a rule of thumb that states that a persons max. heart rate is their age, subtracted from 220. This has not shown to be very accurate however and should not be taken seriously.

A coach can also calculate the respiratory exchange ratio. This would involve lactate tests whilst working sufficiently hard, and analysing oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production to determine the respiratory exchange ratio.

This can be calculated by the following method:

RER = Volume of carbon dioxide expired per minute

Divided by

Volume of oxygen uptake per minute.

The closer the figure is to 1.0 the more likely it is that the body is using glycogen as a fuel.

The time or duration of an exercise is also important. For aerobic type activities one should spend at least half an hour doing the session. However, time should not be considered in isolation as it is often the intensity of the session that determines the duration of it.

The final aspect is the type of training. This should be relevant to the sport in question.

Warm ups and cool downs

Although it is mainly the training that an athlete does that improves his or her fitness, skill levels and ability o perform, undergoing a thorough warm up prior to intense activity or training is vital should one desire to be the best that they can be. Warming up ranges from such simple tasks as going for a run or doing stretches, to sitting on a stationery bike trainer pedalling at specific cadences, specific heart rates ...

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The final aspect is the type of training. This should be relevant to the sport in question.

Warm ups and cool downs

A warm up is designed to prepare the body for exercise, no matter how intense or relaxed the session will be. Not only does it do this, but it is also known to prevent injury, i.e. a pulled muscle and also muscle soreness.

A warm up has the following effects on the body:

There will be an increase in muscle temperature that will facilitate a muscles enzyme activity. This will increase the metabolism of the muscle, which ensures a readily available supply of energy through the breaking down of glycogen.
Adrenaline is released during a warm up, this increases the heart rate which will make it more prepared for intense activity, this will also allow better circulation of the blood, thus delivering more oxygen to the muscle fibres.
The increased temperature will also allow the muscle to be more flexible and elastic. This then increases the forces of contraction within the muscle.
An increase in the speed of nerve impulses makes us more alert and increases reaction time. This is crucial in events such as the 100m sprint.
There is an increase in the production of synovial fluids; this leads to more efficient movement of the joints.
It has psychological benefits. It puts the athlete in a more positive frame of mind and allows them to be more confident in what they are about to embark upon.

However, what is most important is that the warm up is relevant to the chosen activity. A swimmer is more likely to swim a number of lengths prior to their event than they are to pull out a stationery bike trainer and pedal for 30 minutes. To ensure a warm up is most effective, an athlete must follow the following ground rules:

The first phase is aimed at simply raising the heart rate, increasing the speed of oxygen delivery to the muscles and increasing body temperature. This could be achieved through something as simple as jogging.
The muscle temperature would now be higher, so the athlete may perform stretches. Both calisthenic and static stretches should be performed where the muscle is working over its full range. A good example is press-ups or squat thrusts.
The final stage is performing a skill or activity relevant to the sport. For example, before a mountain bike race, a rider would warm up on a stationery bike trainer for about 25 minutes, then about 10 minutes before the race would get off and perform some stretches. They would finish by riding around on their race bike to regain familiarity with its set-up and feel. This is also done so the rider can get away and clear their head before the start of the race. This will allow them to be thinking more clearly and gain more from their efforts.

Cool Downs

After any exercise has taken place it is a good idea to perform a similar task to a warm up. However, it is a cool down and is like a warm up but done in reverse. The idea is to stop unnecessary discomfort or unease. The purpose is to keep the heart rate elevated, the metabolic activity high and capillaries dilated so that oxygen can be pumped through the body, removing any remaining lactic acid. This also stops blood from pooling into the veins, which has often led to dizziness, sometimes fainting. Despite the importance of a cool down, many, even professional athletes forget to do it. Whilst it may sound far-fetched, athletes that do cool downs are probably more likely to be more successful in the long run.

Stretching

There are two main types of stretching, active and passive. Active stretching is when an athlete performs voluntary muscular contractions, and holds that position for a specific time period. By consciously relaxing the desired muscle at the limit of its range of motion, the muscle will elongate following a regular muscle contraction.

Passive stretching refers to the range of movement that occurs as a result of some kind of external force being applied. This is mostly performed with a partner who can offer the desired resistance. Although more obvious things such as gravity and one’s own body weight have been known to work equally as well.

Another type is proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation. This has emerged, over time, from passive stretching. The purpose is to decrease the reflex shortening of the muscle being stretched, which happens when a muscle is stretched to its limit.

Here is a simple PNF technique.

Move slowly to the limit of your range of motion, with the help from a partner. (This is just passive stretching)
Just before discomfort sets in, contract the muscle isometrically for about 8 seconds.
After having held it the muscle will release due to the stimulation of a Golgi tendon organ response which leads to a further relaxation in the muscle and enabling a further stretching of the muscle with the aid of a partner. This type of stretching relies on the fact that a muscle contracts isometrically when stretched, and that once the stretch reflex mechanism is switched off, the muscle is able to stretch further than previously.

Methods of training used

Circuit training

This involves a variety of muscles and allows a good recovery between each of the activities, therefore making it a mild form of interval training at the same time. There are a variety of activities that can be done, from performing weight training to doing squat-thrusts or burpies. Circuit training is fantastic socially and very enjoyable. It is also very easily accessible.

Strength training

This improves your strength and power and can be used for muscular endurance. There are two simple methods for strength training.

High repetitions of a light weight will give tone and definition to a muscle.
Low repetitions of a heavy weight are designed to build on muscle strength and muscle mass.

This type of training is easy to do and there is always someone knowledgeable around to help you with any queries or questions that you may have. It is also a brilliant social thing to do, as it can be done with friends or in groups.

However, you have to be careful, especially those under the age of 16. The reason is simply that below the age of 16, children are still going through the main growth spurts that occur as well as the process of bone strengthening. It is important not to overdo it at a young age as stunting of growth may occur. It is also quite expensive. As this is the type of training I will be doing, I have been phoning around all of the gyms in Guernsey to get a quote for a membership. I have finally found that the local leisure centre offers the best deal, but at £33 a month, it comes over as very expensive, especially seen as I am still a student and not earning reams of money.

Cycling is the best way of improving cardiovascular and muscular endurance and is obviously very accessible. For me there are so many more benefits. It does wonders for my mind and is really what keeps me sane, but I have many friends who occasionally work out on a bicycle and come back saying how they can think so much more clearly and seem to be in a much better state of mind. Ah yes, the pleasures of cycling!

Swimming is also another good way to get fit because, like cycling, it is not taxing on a persons’ joints. It is very accessible, especially in Guernsey due to the miles of beaches and clear waters, and is good for all aspects of fitness.

Overall, there are many ways to improve on ones fitness. With the growth of technology, these methods are now becoming much safer resulting in fewer injuries. I will be working on my upper body strength, and will be using the latest in weight machines. I hope to increase the muscle mass and size in my arms and chest, enabling me to handle my bike with more ease and for longer time periods.

Principles of training I intend to use

Before I begin any of my workouts in the gym, I will consider which principles of training to use out of the few I listed before. Specificity will play a small part in my training plan. In terms of cycling, specificity would usually refer to the training of the legs, as these are essentially one of the most vital parts to a cyclist. However, working on my arms is still relevant to my sport in the sense that these are the parts of the body that do most of the handling of the bike. I don’t intend to have arms like a body builder, but simply to increase their endurance and strength.

I will also be including stretching into my workouts, as this is a vital part of ensuring risk of injury is minimised. If I was not to stretch, there is a chance my muscles would not be as well prepared for the task ahead as if I was to stretch. This will allow me to benefit more from my sessions, as my muscles will be prepared.

How does my P.E.P fit in with my other training?

As I have already stated, I am currently performing at National level in mountain biking and will soon be participating in National Road Races too. It should be no surprise then to hear that I train around 10 hours + a week.

At the start of this project, I worried if I would be able to incorporate it into my current training programs. After all, I didn’t want my cycling to suffer in the slightest. However, after much thought and discussions with my coach, we came to the conclusion that I will be using totally different systems to when I train on the bike, and so the threat of disrupting my cycling is not really there.

My weight lifting will not be taxing on my cardiovascular system in the slightest, or at least, nowhere near as much as cycling is. Fortunately, these weight lifting sessions will be done in school time during my games lessons, so my already-busy life out of school is not about to get any busier.

To give an idea of the type of training I do, I have attached a copy of one of my recent training programs. I usually fill it in day by day for a fortnight, and at the end of that fortnight, I send it to my coach via e-mail. However, training has been getting hard lately, and so I find myself sending it off weekly so my coach and I can be constantly up to speed with how I am feeling, what rides I have managed to do and thus how to structure forthcoming sessions. Also attached is a copy of a “Race Feedback” form, whereby I analyse my performance in races that I have done.

My Sessions

N.B. Whenever I do any of the following workouts, I will keep my back straight at all times to prevent back injury, and ensure the machine is properly set up by checking with the gym staff. I will do this until I am confident in myself in knowing the correct way to adjust the machines to my needs.

My retests and evaluation

Upon taking my strength retest (this is the grip strength test) I was somewhat satisfied with the result. Previously I had scored 50, which was described as average. However after all of my working out in the gym, I managed to score 58 on my first test and 61 on my second. Clearly there is an improvement in my strength here, and whilst my arms are not actually that much greater in size, they certainly seem to be stronger!

I am very pleased with the way my P.E.P. has gone. It has been something I am interested in and keen to do right from the start, and my final result is a good reflection of the time and effort that has gone into this.

I have learnt a lot about the way muscle building works, and although I chose to mostly work on my own, the assistance and guidance I received from the gym instructors was gratefully received and helped my progress on the machines. I will not be stopping my trips to the gym however. I aim to carry on improving my upper body strength and I have also made many new friends at the gym who I hope to keep in touch with.

Clearly I have gained far more from this experience than just an improvement in my strength.