What forms of dispossession were carried out against Aboriginal People?
- Aboriginals have a special link to the land. The early Europeans wanted to own the land. This resulted in Aboriginals being dispossessed (thrown off the land as well as a great number of massacres. Myall Creek in 1838 is perhaps the most well known.
- Disease from Europeans also took its toll on the Aboriginal population.
- During the 19th Century the Government began to set up special reserves and missions to protect Aboriginals, This was to protect Aboriginals from being wiped out.
How was paternalism applied to Aboriginal peoples?
- This is the belief that Aboriginals should be treated like small children and needed protection. Special reserves were created for Aborigines on Crown land. These protectorates were set up to 'look after' Aborigines.
How was the policy of protectionism applied to Aboriginal peoples? .
- Aborigines needed the land for economic independence, hunting and faming and refuge from white harassment. These reserves worked very well with The Aboriginal Protection Board (1883) only supervising the reserves.
- Second Dispossession. Terra Nullius - this meant that no one owned the land. Therefore Aboriginals had no rights to the land. An economic depression occurred in the 1890's. This created poverty and unemployment and the NSW government did not want to have to find the extra costs to run the reserves. By 1909 half the reserves had been taken from the Aboriginals and given to pastoralists
- Aboriginals were forced to move off the land and into the towns to become dependent on Europeans.
- In Victoria and Queensland also set up reserves but could decide where Aboriginals could live. Aboriginals lost their right to work for pay and did not gain the right to vote. Torres Strait Islanders were able to virtually run their own affairs due to John Douglas, the Queensland Government controller. He protected them from the Queensland Aborigines Protection Act.
- After 1900 Aborigines were virtual prisoners within the reserves. They endured overcrowding and unhealthy living conditions. The Church ran some reserves/missions and Aborigines were forced to give up their traditional way of life. Federation did not improve the plight of the Aborigines. They were excluded from Commonwealth welfare benefits, could not vote, stopped from attending the public school system in NSW from 1902, if a European parent complained.
Who were Australians?
- By 1911 Australia's population numbered over 4.4 million people. This figure however excluded Aboriginal people who were not counted in population statistics until after 1967. The main view of Aboriginal people at this time was that they were a "dying race". In 1901, 77% of the population were Australian born, and 23% born overseas. Of those born overseas, the overwhelming majority (79%) was British born. 96% of the population described themselves as "Christian".
- In 1901, 30% of the population lived in capital cities, 20% on rural land and the balance lived in coastal towns, regional towns or the developing suburbs of the major cities.
Life in the Cities
- Most of the working classes lived in semi-detached or detached urban dwellings close to their workplaces. Many paid high rents. There was concern about unsanitary living conditions in urban areas. Poor methods of sewerage disposal existed, and slum dwellings in inner Sydney posed major health hazards. Epidemic disease outbreaks were not uncommon and there were repeated outbreaks of bubonic plague ("Black Death") from 1901 until the 1920s.
- Middle class families tended to occupy the developing suburb areas of the major cities, paying mortgages and traveling distances to work.
- Steam trams were progressively converted to electricity and began to service outer suburbs. Rail networks spread into suburban areas.
- Motorcars became increasingly popular. Licenses and vehicle registration were introduced in 1910.
- Electric street lighting was introduced in Sydney from 1904, though in the first decade gas remained the most commonly used method of lighting and heating.
Life on the Land
- Primary industries such as wool and wheat were the main sector of Australia's economy. Rural industries were assisted in this period by expanded railways, irrigation systems, improved farming methods and low interest loans from State governments.
- Mining also developed during this period with the opening of BHP silver and zinc mines in NSW and iron ore mining in South Australia. In 1915 BHP opened its iron and steel works in Newcastle.
- Wide differences in rural living standards existed between wealthy graziers who owned impressive properties and small farmers and rural workers who earned small incomes and often lived in poor housing.
Home Life
- Unskilled workers averaged 12-16 hours work per day and had little leisure time during the week. Pastimes included reading and card games after the evening meal.
- Working class families tended to have a limited diet and little money to spend even on necessities such as children's shoes. High rents often left frequent shortages in the family budget.
- Wood stoves were the normal means of cooking and heating homes, no refrigeration existed and clothes were washed by hand or boiled in a copper.
- Family picnics were popular Sunday entertainment, race meetings were popular with all social classes and sport was also a popular leisure activity. Wealthy classes enjoyed social visits, clubs, and theatre attendance. Most had one or two domestic servants to assist with household work.
A Workingman's Paradise?
- This was a common view of Australia in the first decade of the 20th century, mainly because skilled workers were well paid and had good conditions compared with those in Britain, Europe and America.
- Trade unions had campaigned successfully for an 8-hour working day for skilled workers, though most unskilled workers worked in excess of 60 hours per week.
- Factory legislation to regulate conditions and work practices existed though, in many factories, employers ignored the legislative requirements.
- In 1904 the Conciliation and Arbitration Commission was established to settle disagreements between workers and bosses. Trade union memberships (skilled trades) steadily increased in this decade.
- In 1907 the Harvester Decision established a principle of a minimum wage (basic wage) for a male unskilled worker (approx. $4.20 per week)
- Important welfare reforms of this period included the introduction of Commonwealth old age and invalid pensions (1908) and limited workers compensation for Federal government employees (1912). Maternity allowances were also introduced. This legislation did place Australia ahead of many other nations in the area of social justice.
Women's Place
- Despite receiving the right to vote in 1902, there was still great inequality between men and women in this decade. Marriage was an economic necessity for many women and married women depended on their husbands for economic survival and well-being. Women generally had to give up jobs when they married, although many working class women continued to work to allow their families to survive.
- In the clothing trades, many women worked for very low wages and for hours approaching 90 per week.
- Domestic servants were primarily women who often worked 14-hour days in return for their board, left over food and a tiny wage.
Which groups in Australian society could not vote around 1901?
- The right to suffrage and the extension of the franchise (the right to vote) to men in the Australia colonies developed at a steady rate throughout the second half of the 19th century after the colonies achieved responsible government. By 1900 Australian men over 21 years of age could vote in all colonial government elections. After federation in 1901, men could vote in Federal elections.
- However developments in the 1880s saw some colonies pass legislation to deny voting rights to Chinese, Aboriginal and Pacific Islander peoples. In particular
- In 1881 Victoria, and in 1882, South Australia removed the right to vote from Chinese men who were not British subjects.
- In 1885 Queensland removed voting rights from "aboriginal natives of Australia, India, China or the South Sea Islands" unless they owned property.
- In 1902 the Commonwealth Electoral Act denied voting rights to any Aboriginal person not already included on the electoral role. It wasn't until 1962 that all Aboriginal people over 21 received the right to vote.
- Before 1900, only women in South Australia (1894) and Western Australia (1899) could vote.
How did women achieve voting rights?
- From about 1880 on, partly inspired by the moves toward Federation, women began to agitate for the right to vote.
- Suffrage societies were formed in every colony to campaign for voting rights, and other organisations such as the Women's Christian Temperance Union and feminist groups such as the Dawn Club and the Women's Suffrage League also lobbied for the vote.
- Individual women wrote articles for newspapers, wrote books and gave public speeches, drew up petitions and lobbied at parliamentary sittings to highlight the campaign for voting rights. Significant women in the movement included Vida Goldstein and Louisa Lawson.
- Women received the right to vote in Federal and New South Wales state elections in 1902; and the remaining states followed up with legislation soon after - Tasmania (1903), Queensland (1905) and Victoria (1908).
How did voting rights of various groups in Australia compare with other countries?
- Comparatively, Voting rights for women in Australia were achieved earlier than in other countries of the world with the exception of New Zealand, which gave the vote to women in 1893. In the USA women received the vote in 1920; Canada (1919), Norway (1912) and in Great Britain, women over 30 could vote from 1918. This was lowered to include women over 21 in 1928. Universal suffrage for men was also marginally ahead. Australian men could vote in national elections from 1901 compared with USA (1913) and Great Britain (1918).
How and why did Australia's patterns of migration change?
What contribution did migrants make to Australia's social, cultural and economic development?
- Since W.W.11 50% of Australia's population increase has been due to migration. Chifley's Labor Government (from 1945 - 1949) began our migration scheme to increase our economic development and for defence reasons.
- Immigration Minister, Arthur Caldwell, introduced the Assisted Passage scheme where Britons could travel to Australia for 10 pounds ($20.00). These migrants had to stay in Australia for at least 2 years.
- Many migrants came to Australia to better themselves and to escape the shortages of Europe after the war.
- Many migrants were European refugees such as Lithuanians, Estonians and Poles. These refugees were taken on humanitarian grounds and had to work in jobs specified by the Government (such as the Snowy Mountains Scheme).
- The Assisted passage scheme was broadened to include Greece, Holland, Germany and Italy during the 1950's.
- The number of factories increased by 50% in 1948 and 1949.
- Australia prospered as an industrial nation, with virtually no unemployment.
- The Migration Act in 1958 removed the dictation test for entry and created entry permits. During the 60's and 70's Middle Eastern and Asian migration has been encouraged. In 1966 all political parties agreed that migrants could come to Australia based on what they could contribute to the country.
What was assimilation and how was it applied to both migrants and Aboriginal people?
What did Aboriginal people achieve as a result of the protest movements from the 1940's to 1972?
What issues did the 1967 referendum address?
How did the policy of assimilation change to integration in relation to migrants and Aboriginal people?
- Many of the new migrants weren't of British descent and were called New Australians. They were expected to assimilate into our culture without recognition of their own and to be able to speak English.
- Most were well educated and of fair skin.
- Migrants were housed in Migrant Hostels that were hot in the summer and overcrowded. Nevertheless, they were taught English and this was a temporary solution.
- Many Australian's treated the New Australians badly calling them names such as refo, eyetie or wog. Consequently, the government introduced a scheme where migrants were taught English, looked after migrants welfare, developed ethnic tolerance and set up a Good Neighbour policy which encouraged a mixing of the 'old' and 'new.
- Integration replaced Assimilation when large ethnic areas developed and it was obvious that ethnic cultures were being maintained. Consequently, Australians were exposed to these cultures, new types of food and different languages. Acceptance grew during the 60's.
Aboriginal assimilation and integration
- The early 20'h Century saw Aboriginals being 'protected' by Governments. By the 1940's change for Aboriginal justice was taking place, Over 1000 Aboriginals served in the armed forces during W.W.II yet their living conditions remained poor, despite Australia signing the Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.
- Native Welfare Conference in 1951. Paul Hasluck (Minister for Territories) promoted Aboriginal assimilation which looked for a gradual diminishing of Aboriginal culture. Aboriginals could maintain their culture until they had accepted the white's ways of living.
- Aboriginals were still discriminated against, especially in country towns were they were denied access to white facilities, including hospitals. The NSW Welfare Board had to buy land on the fringe of towns for
- Aboriginals.
- A number of incidents occurred that finally led to the referendum on Aboriginal Rights in 1967. Activists like Pearl Gibbs and Charles Perkins fought for desegregation. Many whites saw that change was needed. In 1965 the Arbitration and Conciliation court approved equal pay for Aboriginals.
- The Gurindji people at Wave Hill in the NT went on strike against unjust conditions
- The Assimilation policy was gradually changed and in 1967 the Australian people voted in a referendum to give equal rights to Aboriginals. 90% of Australians voted Yes. This ended Assimilation. The Torres Straight Islanders gained equality in 1961 after years of agitation and remain under Australian control.
- There were no Australian citizens before 1949. We were either British citizens or Aliens. The Nationality and Citizens Act of 1949 made Ben Chifley, the Prime Minister, Australia's first citizen. Citizens had the right to vote in Australia, to serve on juries and to hold public office and had to show allegiance to Australia.
How did various groups respond to Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War?
- After the Second World War the tensions between the US (Capitalists) and the USSR (Communist country) intensified. Europe had been divided between the Communist and non-Communist forces. In Australia the fear was that Communism would move from Communist China down through Asia and engulf Australia. This was called the Domino Theory were each country would fall to Communism.
- This conflict became known as the Cold War and began a weapons race, including Nuclear weapons.
- In 1949 Robert Menzies won the Federal election on an anti Communist ticket. He tried to ban Communism through a referendum but was opposed by the Labor party, Trade Unions and the Communist Party. Australians voted against this but it was a bitter referendum and people were still very frightened about Communism.
- Australians fought in Vietnam between 1962 and 1972. $7,000 Australians were sent to Vietnam and 501 were killed. Many of these young men were conscripts and only 18 (Australians had to 21 to vote in an election at this time).
- Australians had been sent to Korea in 1950 and to Malaysia in 1964 and fearing the Domino effect of Communism supported the US in Vietnam. Nth Vietnam, under the control of the Communists, wanted control of South Vietnam, which was nominally capitalist. The US sent troops to support South Vietnam. This war eventually escalated with no real victors (The North would eventually win control in 1975).
- Lyndon Johnson was the US President throughout the mid 60's and Richard Nixon was the President from 1968 to 1974. At first Australians supported our entry into the war, but as TV showed the war horror every night and young conscripts were sent to fight, a protest movement against the war began. This began with the Save our Sons movement which opposed the war.
- The Moratorium movement began in 1966 with the support of the opposition Labor Party. This movement wanted Australia to withdraw from Vietnam and to abolish conscription. Huge rallies occurred in major cities around Australia. Finally, Australia did withdraw and Conscription was abolished in 1972. The Vietnam War divided Australia. Older generations believed in the war whereas, younger generations, generally, were against it and conscription. Soldiers who went to Vietnam were seen as unpopular, which was completely different from their fathers who returned from the Second World War.
How did the attitude and role of women and men in Australian society change?
- In the 1950's, despite the effort made by women during the war, women and men had very traditional roles. Men were the breadwinners and worked whereas women were the child bearers and homemakers. If a woman went out to work they received a lower wage than men. (About 75% for the same work).
- During the 50's and 60's a social, revolution occurred which saw the traditional roles of men and women change. Women began to challenge these roles in work, sport, the Arts and in Parliament
- Better educational opportunities allowed women to take advantage of more highly skilled and paid jobs.
- Between 1962 and 1969 women gradually received the same pay as men through Government legislation.
- The Women's movement began in the US and was known as Women's liberation and worked through Direct Action and protesting. The first National Women's Liberation Conference was held in May 1970.