- Bhutto to Zia:
After the creation of Bangladesh in 1971, Bhutto who was in majority in West Pakistan became the President of Pakistan. Bhutto was quite a popular leader. One of the biggest achievement that Bhutto got and that was a serious demand of Pakistan was the release of 93,000 solders by India. A summit was held in Simla in which the two countries agreed on the release of POWs. This agreement was called as Simla Agreement. . Bhutto through Simla Agreement was able to bring back 90’000 POWs back from India. During the time of Bhutto General Tikka Khan was the C-in-C and Bhutto was enjoying the complete support of military.
4.1 Bhutto & Islam
When Bhutto assumed the power, the Islamic ideology of Muslim nationalism was quite weak. Therefore Bhutto brought with him Islamic socialism. This so called Islamic socialism got under attack by the orthodox Muslim groups. Therefore in order to placate the fundamentalists, Bhutto in the 1973 constitution declared Islam as the the “State religion”.
Among the achievements of Bhutto’s Government was the formation of a new constitution. The major plus point in this constitution was that it accommodated the proposals from the opposition parties also. So there was no problem fro Bhutto to accept that constitution from the opoosition parties and the constitution was approved by the National Assembly on 10th April, 1973. The Constitution was parliamentary in nature. In this constitution a lot of stress was given on Islamic principles. After the National Assembly passed the 1973 Constitution, Bhutto was sworn-in as the Prime Minister of the country.
Another very majoe decision taken by Bhutto was that he nationalized ten categories of major industries in Pakistan. Then as a protest for accepting Bangladesh as a new state by western countries, Bhutto withdrew Pakistan from Commonwealth and S.E.A.T.O.
The downfall of Bhutto started with the elections of March 1977. The combine opposition of Bhutto formed a national alliance called Pakistan National Alliance (PNA). They started to come on streets. The situation of law & order was not in control. The demand for a Martial law was from the politicians themselves. Thus on July 5th, 1977, Zia-ul-Haq who was the C-in-C, imposed the third martial law in the country under the code-name of Operation Fairplay10. Zia took over the country as the CMLA and suspended the constitution. It was the starting of the longest martial law in Pakistan.
- ZIA:
Zia, who came in power in July 1977 as a result of military coup, in order to justify his coup in terms of religious basis brought with him a system of social order based on Nizam-i-Mustafa. In an interview to BBC, Zia claimed “I have a mission, given by God, to bring Islamic order to Pakistan”34. The orthodox Islamic parties welcomed this change and promised to extend their fullest cooperation to the military regime. They were happy that now after 30 years of creation of Pakistan the Islamic system of Shariah would be established. According to Mumtaz Ahmad, “Most of the Islamic political groups define the process of Islamization as a transfer of political power from the secular minded corrupt elite to the saleheen (pious Muslims)”11.The process of Islamization included establishments of laws of Zakat, Ushr, Hudood, Pardah etc. These Islamic principles helped Zia to gain the support of Islamic parties and the middle class. According to B.M. Chengappa ‘Zia made a mockery of Islam and said that God had appointed him the ruler of Pakistan’16. Zia also conducted a referendum in 1984 so that he could legitimize his rule. Bhutto was hanged and the elections were post pone.
Another instrument used by Zia in order to have a control on the military and civil administration was that he used to give extensions and pre-mature retirements to the people he wished working in the administrative machinery. The officers who were his close associates were granted promotions and extensions even beyond their retirement age 12. Even after the retirement they were given lucrative posts in Military’s business concerns such as Fauji Fertilizer Company (FFC) 13. On the contrary the officers whom he considered as a threat to his rule were forced to tender their resignation or were posted as Officer on Special Duty (OSDs)14.
Zia in order to give the President more powers introduced the 8th amendment in the constitution according to which the President has the authority to dismiss the elected governments. By introducing this amendment, he made the President a constant threat to the elected assemblies. And at many times since then this power has been used by the Presidents to dissolve the National Assembly. The interesting thing is that this power was used for the first time by non other than Zia himself to dissolve the self elected assembly of Prime Minister Junejo when the Prime minister tried to exert some control over the military by asking General Akhtar Abdur Rehman and Lt Gen Hamid Gul to resign due to the debacle at the Ojhri Camp. But since they both were quite close to Zia, therefore Zia using this amendment dissolved the National Assembly in May 1988 15.
5.2 The post Zia Period:
Immediately after the sudden death of President Zia ul Haq in a C-130 place crash on 17th August General Aslam Baig who was then the Vice Chief of the Army staff assumed the office of Chief of Army Staff of Pakistan, while Ishaq Khan who was the Chairman of Senate assumed the office of President of Pakistan. Ghulam Ishaq Khan was a close companion of Zia ul Haq and thus had little respect for politicians. Elections were held and the main competition was between the PPP led by Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and IJI led by Mian Nawaz Sharif. The elections were won by Benazir Bhutto and Ghulam Ishaq Khan called upon Benazir to form the first post Zia civilian government.
- The First Benazir Government:
Benazir who was only 36 year old at the time of assuming the power of Prime Minister of Pakistan was the first woman in modern history to head a government of a Muslim nation. Unfortunately due to lack of political experience, most of the government policies were intended to suppress the opposition while not giving the preference to the domestic problems that they required. In her first official press conference, Benazir accused Nawaz Sharif, who had become the Chief Minister of Punjab and his IJI of having stolen the provincial elections. According to Ziring “ As her father before her had plotted the undermining of the frontier government when they failed to vote for PPP, so now Benazir also seemed to believe she could offset the results of the Punjab elections and somehow manage the province from Islamabad.”24. Unfortunately Benazir failed in getting the desired results. Benazir was basically a split personality person. On one side she was projecting cosmopolitan and worldly experience; on the other hand she was revealing her narrowly defined restricted life ways. It was the latter personality that influenced her behaviour as Prime Minister. Benazir knew that Ghulam Ishaq had the power to use the powers of his office delegated to him through 8th amendment according to his will. If she had desired that President should not use his power of 8th amendment she would have accepted the results of 1988 elections. But unfortunately the desire of Benazir to control Punjab was so obsessive that President had to step in.
Benazir was quite lucky that she has the support of Aslam Baig, the Chief of Army Staff, on her side. General Baig sheltered her from the opposition and gave shelter to the government from the attacks of the opposition. But the support of Army was not the only thing required by Benazir to run the government. Soon the defections within her coalition government started emerging. Both the MQM and the ANP broke with the PPP. MQM drifted because of the military crackdown on their party in Karachi, while ANP drifted out due to the government’s policy on Afghanistan.
6.1 The Conflicts in Karachi:
The major commercial city of Pakistan, Karachi, was paralyzed due to the strike called by MQM which resulted in widespread disorder as well as in killings, burning and looting. Hundreds of demonstrators were arrested. Along with the strikes started the terrorist activities in Karachi. Almost in every week there was a terrorist bombing activity in Karachi which was killing hundreds of innocent people. The military was called down in Karachi to control the law & order situation in Karachi. It was a turning point between the military and government relations. General Baig wanted a free hand in Karachi but Benazir refused to do that.
6.2 Benazir and Kashmir:
On one hand Benazir was facing strikes in Karachi while on the other hand her government had to face the renewed fighting in Kashmir between the Indian army and mujhaiddin. The Indian government was constantly accusing the Pakistani government of supporting the cross border terrorism. The tension of the ceasefire line between India and Pakistan increased. It was a time when the tension between the two countries was at its peak after the 1971 war. The Pakistan National Assembly was summoned for a special purpose i.e. Kashmir. Pakistan was asking the Indian government to honour the long post poned plebiscite in Kashmir. There was a threat of nuclear war. Therefore America had to step in, and they forced both the government to settle the problem through discussions on table not through war.
6.3 The end of Benazir’s First government:
When Benazir failed to handle the domestic law & order situation, Ghulam Ishaq dissolved the National Assembly and made Ghulam Jataoi the caretaker Prime Minister declaring that Benazir was unable to control the domestic violence and has nurtured the corrupt practices of her family. Benazir took the decision of the President in Courts but failed. Elections date was announced and PPP lost the elections to IJI and Nawaz Sharif became the Prime Minister of Pakistan.
- Nawaz Sharif:
Soon after assuming the office of Prime Minister, Nawaz declared that his intentions are to work with all the political parties including the PPP. Nawaz after taking the oath in his address to public said “Education, health, employment, shelter, peace, and protection are the basic rights of all citizens and his government would work make sure that the citizens get what they deserve.”25
The elections of 1990 were commonly believed to be rigged. The IJI party whose actual founder was General Hameed Gul did his best to ensure that PPP gets defeated in polls26. But unfortunately the relations between Nawaz and General Baig started to deteriorate due to government’s policy on the Gulf War. Although the Chief of the Army Staff do not talk about the country’s foreign policy publicly but General Baig discussed the government’s policy over Gulf War publicly and openly criticized America and supported Saddam and gave his famous doctrine of ‘Strategic Defence’27. It was also known that both the army and the PM differed in their approach to Kashmir, US and even Sindh. But the main factor which annoyed the army and led to Nawaz Sharif’s dismissal was “Sharif’s solo flight in initiating peace process with India.”28. The National Assembly was dissolved by the President but for the first time in the history of Pakistan it was restored by the Supreme Court. This decision of the court resulted in a political deadlock between the Prime Minister and the President. The military came in and brokered a deal where both the President and the PM resigned and new elections were held in October 1993. 29
- The second Benazir’s Government:
Benazir started her second term as the Prime Minister after winning the 1993 elections and getting the largest number of seats in the National Assembly. A PPP nominated Senator Farooq Ahmad Leghari became the President of Pakistan. This time Benazir’s relations with the military were much improved. She tried her best to avoid any kind of interference in the internal hierarchy of military and kept the major security and foreign policy matters as the main preference of her government.
According to Hassan Askari, “What got the Bhutto government into trouble in 1996 was its abysmal performance in the civilian sector and its failure again to provide an effective and transparent administration”29. The ethnic violence in Karachi and Hyderabad intensified during 1995-96 when the MQM and the law enforcing agencies (police and rangers) confronted each other. The result was increased violence and killings of innocent people. There were incidents of unidentified gunmen killing innocent people and looting of government as well as private property. According to Askari ‘There were also religious- sectarian killings, mainly but not exclusively in Punjab, as two extremist groups of Shia and Sunni Muslims engaged in an armed gang war.
The economy also started to falter in 1996. The pressures from IMF, declining foreign exchange reserves, threat of defaulting, inflation, devaluation, price hikes, poor fiscal management and the corruption added to government’s woe. The President expressed concern about deteriorating conditions of the economy and advised the P.M to take effective steps and also do something about the alleged corruption of her husband, Asif Zardari. The situation got worsens when Benazir’s Brother Murtaza Bhutto was killed in a police shot in Karachi. The PPP party was itself neglected by its leaders. The opposition parties in a combine effort came on streets and demanded the government’s dismissal. The law & order situation for so worse that president had to order the Army chief to remove Bhutto from her office.
- The Second Nawaz Government:
Nawaz Sharif after a gap of three years returned to power in February 1997. Sharif got a two third majority in the parliament. Thus Shariff adopted a new strategy of holding to the power. He used his power in parliament to secure his seat. He through the 13th amendment withdrew the power of President to dismiss the Parliament. Then in order to have a control over the military, he through another amendment in the constitution, gave the power to the Prime Minister of appointing the services chief.
Nawaz in his second regime if at all worked for any serious cause was that how could he stick on to the power and how he can increase his powers. Through the power of his mandate he after a harsh confrontation with the Chief Justice of Supreme court made him tender his resignation. This crisis was erupted when the Chief Justice of Supreme court asked for the elevation of three senior judges of high court to the Supreme Court. But the government rejected the demand of Chief Justice and even reduced the number of judges in the Supreme Court.
Then the second confrontation was with the military and it was for the first time that the Chief of the Army Staff had to give his resignation due to a confrontation with the prime Minister. Sharif even forced the President Leghari to step down of his chair and made Rafiq Tarrar the President of Pakistan.
But the major shock from Sharif for the people and particularly for the army came when during the war of Kargil in 1999 when Pakistan was on the verge of winning the battle; Sharif on the pressure of America ordered a cease fire which resulted in a severe men loss for Pakistan Army. The army leadership grew increasingly alarmed at these developments. Then in October 1999, when General Pervaiz Musharraf who was the Chief of the Army Staff was attending an official summit in Nepal was asked to step down from his post and General Zia was made the new Chief of the Army Staff. The military retaliated to this sudden action of Nawaz Sharif and in a blood less coup, General Pervaiz became the Chief Executive of Pakistan.
- Musharraf:
The task facing General Musharraf who became the Chief Executive of Pakistan after the coup in October 1999 was enormous. On December 15th, 1999, after two months in office, Musharraf made a key policy address that described Pakistan’s troubled economy and the steps his administration had taken to tackle it17. The policies of Musharraf were quite interesting. For example the compensation given to deceased government employees was increased, then the land was given to the landless peasants. His initial agenda was full of ambitions. Musharraf promised to improve the existing government institutions.
Musharraf’s government fulfilled its promise by giving judicial independence. He also gave the press the freedom they were seeking and started new health and educational programmes.
10.1 Musharraf and Kashmir:
According to Dr. Jon P. Dorschner ‘The September 11 terrorist attack against the United States and the subsequent opening of active hostilities between a U.S.-engineered “anti-terror coalition” and the Taliban regime of Afghanistan has again focused international attention on the South Asia region, the India/Pakistan relationship and the Kashmir dispute.”33
Kashmir has always played a very important role in developing the foreign policies of Pakistan. Pakistan has always claimed Kashmir as its integral part. So when Musharraf came in power, government of India avoided any contacts with the new military regime. Indian establishment has always considered Musharraf as the chief architect of the Kargil war of 1999. The Government of India has always put pressure on Pakistani regimes through statements and the international community. But even in Musharraf’s regime the problem of Kashmir remained unresolved. Indian has always been blaming Pakistan of supporting the different militant groups working to disrupt the law & order situation in Kashmir. The difference in approach comes when Pakistan calls that freedom struggle. They don’t deny their support. While on the other hand Indians call that cross border terrorism. General (retired) Jehangir Karamat said “Pakistan agrees that such incidents are terrorist acts but denies its involvement and its point of view is that these acts should be jointly investigated and should not automatically lead to a crisis situation”18. It is with out any doubt that the conflict between Indian & Pakistan over Kashmir and its nuclear dimension makes this region extremely volatile.
Musharraf in 2001 as President of Pakistan went to India at Agra to discuss the relations on India and Pakistan. The Indian government tried that Musharraf should not stress on Kashmir, but Musharraf made it clear that if there is any design of India to address issues, other than the Kashmir issue or to sideline the Kashmir issue, then he is not going to be a part of it. The Lashkar-e-Tayyaba, the largest Pakistani jehadi20 group, fighting in the disputed territory of Kashmir, has promised to sabotage recent peace moves between India and Pakistan and has even told Musharraf to grow an Islamic beard21.
10.2 Mushrraf and Taliban:
After 9/11, when US government clearly asked the government of Pakistan that whether they are on their side or are going to support Taliban, it became extremely difficiult for Pakistan to continue its support to Taliban. Therefore Musharraf came with the slogan of “Sab sae pehlay Pakistan” and extended the full support of Pakistan with USA. It is quite interesting to know that according to many western scholars, Taliban got their initial support and weapons from Pakistan Army. Sreedhar a famous Indian scholar says “Pakistani military personnel have also been involved in the Pakistan-Taliban-Al-Qaida . According to the anti-Taliban forces estimates at least a brigade level force (4000-5000 men) of the Pakistani army has worked with the Pakistan-Taliban-Al Qaida.”18. But due to the intense pressure from American and the other International community, Musharraf realized the intensity of the situation and helped American in getting control over Taliban in Afghanistan. Pakistan although never admitted that publicly but according to different foreign Intelligence agencies Pakistan even gave America their Air bases. It was a very difficult time period for Musharraf. The orthodox militant groups established in Pakistan turned against Musharraf over his decision for supporting America in War of Terrorism. These militant groups have very firm roots in Pakistan but Musharraf took a bold step of working with the International community, although he had to face a serious reaction from the Islamic orthodox parties in Pakistan.
10.3 Developments on the Economic Front
Pakistan has been unfortunate in the sense that the majority of politicians it got were never serious for Pakistan. Pakistan has been running on constant borrowings from one government or other. The debt which Pakistan was facing when Musharraf took over was approximately US$ 38 billion 22.At that time Pakistan was on the verge of defaulting. Musharraf after a long time was the first leader who really worked hard to prevent Pakistan from the verge of defaulting. Musharraf soon after assuming power in October 1999 started negotiating with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) for a US$ 2.5 billion three year credit which would at least help Pakistan to stay afloat. It is quite interesting to note that during Musharraf’s regime, the foreign investor confidence has come back after the decision of holding the bank accounts by Nawaz regime. There are many International economists who say that Pakistan is at its take-off point.
10.4 New Local Body system & the education condition
After fifteen months of Musharraf’s coup, the country took its first step towards the restoration of democracy. Musharraf’s newly created National Reconstruction Bureau came with the idea of a new local body system. The main feature was that every city would have a city government whose head would be the Nazim. This was a effort to reduce the hand of civil bureaucracy in civil affairs. In this new system, the Divisions were eliminated and along with that the vice regal system of Commissioners and Deputy Commissioners. This new system according to military was transfer of power to grassroots democracy. The Chief Executive justifying the new system said, "Democracy starts here at the district and local governments. From here, we will move up step by step to provincial and federal elections in due course."31 According to Shalini Chawla “the local level elections were part of Musharraf's drive for a grassroots democracy to depose Pakistan's traditional feudal elite, which had dominated national politics for 50 years”22.A majority of the seats for Nazims, and Naib Nazims have been won by candidates nominated by traditional political groups or those enjoying support from various political parties.
10.5 Musharraf and Nawaz’s Exile:
When the military seized power from Nawaz Sharif, the Parliament and Constitution were suspended and Sharif was thrown in jail. This was not surprising, but the military government's decision to release Nawaz Sharif from jail and let him go into exile has thrown Pakistan's civilian political scene into disarray.
According to Shalini Chawla ‘Sharif flew to a luxurious exile in Saudi Arabia, on December 10, 2000, with seventeen relatives, as guests of the Saudi royal family, after entering into an agreement, reportedly, to stay away from the country for at least 10 years (until 2010) and not take part in Pakistan's politics for 21 years.’32 In return for this exile, the ailing prime minister was granted a presidential pardon for several criminal convictions, including a 25-year sentence for hijacking and terrorism connected to the October 12, 1999 coup, and also for numerous pending charges of financial corruption during his tenure in the prime minister's office. Pakistani news organizations report that the agreement had been brokered in secrecy by members of the Saudi royal family.
Conclusion:
Musharraf was the first military ruler who fulfilled his promise of restoring the democracy in Pakistan. On 10th October, 2002 the elections for National and Provincial assemblies were held in Pakistan. Although the opposition parties accused Musharraf of pre poll rigging but the results brought a shock for everyone including the International community. For the first time in Pakistan the religious parties got a decent representation in the Provincial Assemblies as well as in the National Assembly. These elections were also unique in the sense that the leaders of the major two parties were not present in Pakistan. Benazir was at self exile in Dubai while Nawaz Sharif was in Saudi Arabia.
But in any case, even today, although almost every ruler of Pakistan tried to break down the feudal structured society of Pakistan but everyone failed. The economy of Pakistan is under the immense pressure of IMF and World Bank for the loans they have already taken. The total loan of Pakistan is around $36 billion. A major portion of Pakistan’s budget hoes every year in the debt servicing and off the rest 60% goes for the defense and military expenditure. Although many people have raised question about the immense burden o Pakistani Army on its economy but up till now no government has even tried to curtail the military expenditure. Liaqat Ali Khan in the first budget of Pakistan allocated a very high amount to the defence. Since then there has been an increase in the defence expenditures till now. In the recent past, V.C.Rs and Kalashnikov Rifles have symbolized our culture. Social interest has given way to urban violence and terrorist activities. This may be attributed to lack of employment and social insecurity and the ever increasing chasm between the ‘Haves’ and ‘Have-nots’. If we look at our history and try to conclude that which thing has caused the democracy in Pakistan to not to work properly, we will see the 8th amendment by Zia. This amendment in constitution gave the president the immense power to dissolve the assemblies when ever he wants. Through the 13th amendment Nawaz tried to curtail the power of the President but he too was thrown away by the army. Now when the new assembly is already working, I guess, it would be premature to say that through the 13th amendment the democracy in Pakistan will be safeguarded for all times to come.
The problem also lies with politicians. Majority of politicians have feudal backgrounds. They are least concerned about the democratic institutions or giving power to people or even resolving the problems of people. All they are concerned about is that how can they increase their status and their person wealth. It is very unfortunate for us living in Pakistan that the assemblies have failed to create a political culture in Pakistan based on the principals of tolerance, democratic political process, and supremacy of law. We need to establish a sense of faith on politicians in Pakistan. Due to the corruptions done by the Politicians, the people of Pakistan do not trust on Politicians. It is due to this reason that whenever military takes over the power they get a warm welcome from the people. It is due to these reasons that the democratic institutions working in Pakistan are so fragile that they can be suspended at any time on the wish of the Generals. no civil government has ever tried to transfer the power to the people at grass root level. The only attempts to do so have been from the Military Generals. Ayub Khan through his Basic Democracy System tried to transfer the power to the grass root level. Then in 2000, Pervaiz Musharraf tried to give the power to the people at grass root level by introducing the system of Nazims and city governments. He shifted the power from the Bureaucracy to the people representing the local community. But almost during every civil government phase the politicians have tried to get as much power in order to misuse that in their personal interests. Thus another reason given for the coups was that Politicians were misusing the power and therefore Military will start the process of Accountability and would transfer the power to those politicians who are honest and would like to work for their country. So now when the military has partially transfer the power to the civilian institution, lets hope that this time the assembly works for 5 years and do some thing for the country in a positive way.
FOOT NOTES:
- For details see “State, Society, and Democratic change in Pakistan” by Khalid Bin Sayeed.
- See “Pakistan’s never ending story” by Sumit Ganguly (Foreign Affairs; New York: Mar/Apr 2000).
-
For details of the Kashmir Operations, see Major General Fazal Muqeem Khan, The Story of Pakistan Army, 1963, p.75
-
see Hassan Askari Rizvi, The Military and Politics in Pakistan: 1947 - 86, 1986, p.36
-
See Shahid Javed Burki, Pakistan: The Continuing Search for Nationhood, 1991, p.48
-
See Qudratullah Shahab, Shahab Nama, p. 947. Lahore : Niaz Ahmed, 1992.
- Basic Democracy system was introduced by Ayub Khan under which the President was elected indirectly through an electoral college of individuals who were in turn elected by local bodies.
-
For details of division-level military operations Gibraltor and Grandslam carried out by Pakistan before the outbreak of the '65 war, see General Mohammad Musa, My Version: India-Pakistan War 1965, p. 35
-
For details on the power transfer from Ayub Khan to Yahya Khan , see Shahid Javed Burki, Pakistan: The Continuing Search for Nationhood, 1991, p.52
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For the details on how the Operation was carried out, see General K. M. Arif, Working with Zia: Pakistan's Power Politics 1977-88, 1995
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For more details on Zia-ul-haq and Islamization see Mumtaz Ahmad’s Revivalism, Islamization, Sectarianism, and Violence in Pakistan, p. 103.
-
For details see Brigadier Mohammad Yousaf and Major Mark Adkin, The Bear Trap: Afghanistan's Untold Story, 1992 in which they give the example of General Akhtar Abdur Rahman, who was promoted to the rank of General even though he had no Corps Command experience.
-
See "The Army's March to Profit", Asiaweek, reprinted in The Friday Times, February 13-19, 1992.
- For example: Air Commodore Sajjad Haider told General Zia that the armed forces were suffering because of their involvement in politics and resigned from the force in 1979. Major-General Shah Rafi Alam, respected in army circles as a strictly professional man was told by General Zia that he was being superseded for further promotion because he was known to strongly oppose the army's hanging on to power. The '65 war ace: Squadron Leader M M Alam (later Air Commodore) was sidelined in the early eighties on similar grounds. For details see:
- Air Commodore Sajjad Haider (PAF, Ret.) interviewed by Anjum Niaz in Dawn Magazine, February 14, 1997
- Major General Rafi Alam (Ret.) interviewed by Moni Mohsin in The Friday Times March 31 - April 6, p.24
- Air Commodore Mohammad Mahmood Alam interviewed by Rina Saeed Khan, The Friday Times, September 15-21, 1994, p.24
-
On April 11, 1988 an ammunitions dump at Ojhri blew up spraying rockets and explosives on Rawalpindi and Islamabas. It was a store for ISI's Afghan effort; for details see Brigadier Mohammad Yousaf and Major Mark Adkin, The Bear Trap: Afghanistan's Untold Story, 1992, pp.220 – 221
-
See “The Role of Religion in Political Evolution” by B.M. Chengappa in Strategic Analysis:
A Monthly Journal of the IDSA
-
See Pakistan’s never ending story by Sumit Ganguly in Foreign Affairs; New York; Mar/Apr 2000.
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For details see General (retired) Jehangir Karamat’s speech at "Pugwash Workshop on South Asian Security" at on 1-3 November 2002.
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Sreedhar is a Senior Research Associate at IDSA. For further details see “Pakistan-Taliban-Al Qaida: New Trends in Terrorism and Violence” in Strategic Analysis: A Monthly Journal of the IDSA
.
- On December 22, 2000, the Lashkar attacked New Delhi's historic Red Fort. Two Indian soldiers and a civilian guard were killed. The Lashkar has pledged next to bomb the Indian prime minister's office.
- See Ahmed Rashid, "Borrowed Time", Far Eastern Economic Review, December 14,2000, p.25.
- See Ahmed Rashid, "Borrowed Time", Far Eastern Economic Review, December 14,2000, p.28.
-
See Shalini Chawla’s “Recent Developments in Pakistan” in Strategic Analysis (A Monthly Journal of the IDSA)
- For more details on the post zia period. See “Paksiatn: A Political History” by Ziring at p. 503.
-
See “The Nation” on 7th November 1990.
-
See Khaled Ahmed, "The folly of ruling through spies", The Friday Times, Nov 21-27, 1996, p.9
-
See Najam Sethi, "Unveiling Gen Beg's grand plan", The Friday Times, April 28-May 4, 1994, p.6
- See Zafar Abas, “The call to Arms”, The Herald, December 1997, p.41.
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For details on dissolution and restoration of the Assembly and the role of the services chiefs as mediators, see national newspapers dated between April 19, 1993 and June 1993. For example, "National Assembly dissolved, Army takes over PTV, radio stations", cover story in Dawn, 19 April, 1993.
- For more details on the Military Civil relations, See Hassan Askari, “Civil Military Relations in Contemporary Pakistan”, “Survival”; London; Summer 1998. p. 96-113.
- See “Asian Recorder”, 2000, p.267-268
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For more details on the agreement of Sharif’s exile, see Shalini Chawla, “Recent Developments in Pakistan” in Strategic Analysis, .
- Dr. Jon P. Dorschner is a Professor at Department of Social Sciences, United States Military Academy. Information about the post 9/11 relations between Pakistan and United States can be seen in his article “A New Response to the Kashmir Dispute”
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Zia talked about his idea of Islam in an interview on BBC on 15th April, 1978.
