Mazzini's ideas and inspiration transformed attitudes to change in Italy in the 1830's - Do you agree with this statement?

Jonathan Howell 12MK 08/10/2002

History Essay

Mazzini’s ideas and inspiration transformed attitudes to change in Italy in the 1830’s. Do you agree with this statement?

Introduction

Guisseppe Mazzini was born in piedmont in Genoa; was a son of a doctor and a professor. He was a depressive and physically frail.

In the revolutions of 1820 he became a nationalist.

He tried two occupational directions, Medicine but became bored and kept fainting as well as Law that didn’t interest him.

In 1827 he amalgamated (joined) the Carbonari but was disappointed. In 1830 he took part in the revolts and was arrested then sent to France. In 1831 he formed young Italy when he was 26 years old in Marseilles and was based on Mazzini’s own views of how revolution was to succeed in Italy. It was a youth movement. The maximal age limit was 40(Later raised), but most members were much younger. Their motto was ‘Thought and action’. They displayed a uniform of the national colours –Green shirt, red belt, white trousers and a beret. They equipped themselves with armaments –a rifle and 50 rounds of ammunition each member.

‘Young Italy’ was not a localised affair. Its aims were for the whole of Italy, and its contacts international. Mazzini had grand plans for liberal change throughout Europe, and soon groups such as ‘young Germany’, ‘Young Ireland’. ‘And young Europe’ kept pace with similar patterns.

I do not accord that Mazzinis key ideas and inspiration transformed attitudes to change in the 1830’s.He didn’t really ‘transform’ anything but was an idealist that opened peoples eyes to possibilities and capabilities.

Mazzini wanted unification and the ‘universality of citizens speaking the same tongue as he put it.’ He also wanted all people to be free and equal that was a very left wing view. He wanted a republic and was against Restored monarchs.

To achieve this he would use Newspaper plots and assassinations.

The secret greeting was ‘what is the time? A time for struggle.’

In 1823 he inspired and animated a revolt that failed.

German Italian and polish refugees in Switzerland were supposed to fight a second revolt. He gambled away the revolution Money and in 1837 he was in London and wrote 10,000 letters and 100 articles that were signed Emily. Mazzini migrated towards the Roman republic; he continued writing until his death in 1872.

Philosophy: Mazzini believed in the people, he was against the influence of Austria and France; was against all the old leaders. Thought Christianity was a worn out religion, and God should be shown through the people, also he wanted a democratic republic.

Problems: His writings were too intellectual and idealistic for many people, but saying this he was a very famed and successful publisher of ideas. He wrote thousands of letters and endless articles that he smuggled into Italy, these appeared in his societies newspapers and elsewhere. According to the Historian Dennis mack smith, Mazzini succeeded in ‘defining the goal and arousing enthusiasm among practiced soldiers and statesmen’. He is therefore important, not so much for what he did as much for what he did, but for the way he inspired many young radicals in this period. He gave their Liberalism new favour and optimism that kept the country alive until 1848 in the face of adverse circumstances.

Mazzini spent 40 years abroad and ignored the peasants so the peasants didn’t pay as much attention to his work.

Carlo Catteneo had similar views to Mazzini on unification. Carlo Cattenao was born in Milan in 1801 and died at Castagnolia, near Lugano, Switzerland, in 1869. He graduated from the University of Pavia in 1824 and taught at a secondary school in Milan.

A leading proponent of free trade and critic of protectionism, Catteneo was among several Lombard Intellectuals of his Generation who were assured that the policies of the Hapsburg Government were detrimental to the Economic progress of ...

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Mazzini spent 40 years abroad and ignored the peasants so the peasants didn’t pay as much attention to his work.

Carlo Catteneo had similar views to Mazzini on unification. Carlo Cattenao was born in Milan in 1801 and died at Castagnolia, near Lugano, Switzerland, in 1869. He graduated from the University of Pavia in 1824 and taught at a secondary school in Milan.

A leading proponent of free trade and critic of protectionism, Catteneo was among several Lombard Intellectuals of his Generation who were assured that the policies of the Hapsburg Government were detrimental to the Economic progress of the region and, hence, also to its social and political progress. Gradually he was drawn into a circle of the Milanese upper class who pressed for changes in official policy.

During his brief but intense experience as a revolutionary leader, Cattaneo developed a deep distrust of the Peidmontese monarchy and its supporters. He stuck to these political views throughout the period of struggle for the unification of Italy that followed the revolution of 1848. Cattaneo also clashed with Giuseppi Mazzini because he perceived the Mazzinian brand of republicanism was incompatible with Italy’s diverse political and cultural traditions so had no faith in a unified and centralized Italy. In his view there were too many differences in laws customs and languages for this to work. In his opinion the best hope for a future Italy was a federal republic based on the existing pattern of states.

Geoberti, an exiled priest, didn’t accord with Mazzinis ideas, he wanted the pope to have more power whom he envisaged as the president of a federation of existing rulers.

Pope Pius the ninth XI

Pope Pius was previously known as Giovanni Maria Mastai-ferretti was born in 1792 in Ancona, ninth child of a noble family with strong church connections. He wasn’t pedagogically (Academically) capable, and was destined for an army profession. In 1807 he acquired epilepsy so became a member of the church instead.

In 1819 he metamorphosed (turned) into a priest, 1823 he was a papal diplomat in Chile, 1827 Bishop then archbishop of in the papal states,1845 cardinal.1846 he was a surprise choice as pope on the death of Gregory 16th (XVI).Took name of Pius 9(IX)Known in Italy as Pope pio nono. Was to be the most sustained reign to date. (1846-1878)

He appeared to be a liberal immediately freed 2000 political prisoners, that were mostly revolutionaries ; reformed Education ,reformed the law and papal administration gave layman greater shares in public affairs. In 1847 he ended amentation (censorship) of press, allowed 100 mostly revolutionary newspapers, establishment of political clubs and formation in Rome of civic guard. Allowed Jews out of the Ghetto and granted Rome a constitution to replace absolute papal rule.In 1848 April 29th there was a complete change of policy.

He was opposed to Nationalism and Republicanism. So condemned both views and rejected the Regimento. That displeased the people and caused Revolutions. His views were extraordinarily different to Mazzinis.

Charles Albert

Early life and character

Charles Albert was said to be a ‘Strange rather quiet young man, who had been brought up in exile in France. He saw on his return to piedmont just how severe and tyranical Victor Emmanuel’s Government had become. Charles Albert showed sympathy with revolutionary students injured in riots in Turin and was known to have links with revolutionary officers in the army. In March 1821 the liberals (moderate and non-violent reformers) appealed to him to lead the revolution, and it seems that he agreed to do so, although he later denied it when it failed. There are also suggestions, though there is no clear evidence for it, that he may have been acting as a government agent and only pretending to be in sympathy with revolutionaries in order to gather information about their plans. Such actions would be in keeping with their clandestine personality. Perhaps, and probably the most likely, he had not made up his mind and just dithered as he hesitated between two or more possible causes of action. ‘The legend of Charles Albert’ as someone who could not make up their mind has begun.

While he was dithering (he was nicknamed the wobbler for this) a revolutionary group seized the fortress of Alessandria in Genoa and established a provisional (Temporary) government calling itself the ‘kingdom of Italy’ and, rather foolishly declaring war on Austria. This declaration came to nothing because Victor Emmanuel, tired of being strained by revolutionary groups to grant political and social reforms, and worried by reports of new army

mutinies in Turin, decided to abdicate. He left for niece, close to the western frontier of piedmont, as revolution spread throughout his kingdom. His brother and heir, Charles Felix, succeeded him, but died in 1831.This left his son Charles Albert to become, at last king of Piedmont.

It looked as though his reign was to be as absolute (powerful) and oppressive as that of victor Emmanuel’s, despite his flirtation with the rebels, in 1821 Charles Albert began his rein as a reactionary Monarch, by signing the treaty with Austria and was intimidating threatening to attack the liberal government then in power in France. All was to change, by 1848-9 Charles Albert was to grant his people a constitution that would survive to be a constitution of the united Italy of the 1860’s.

Historians have tried to explain why Charles Albert changed from a Reactionary to a Liberal, but have not found any satisfactory answers.

One suggestion is that he had always been a nationalist, perhaps even a secret revolutionary, and once king, was waiting only for a suitable opportunity to declare himself. This is not very convincing. More probably the answer lies in Charles Albert’s own labyrinthine(intricate) character.

His whole career was one of contradictions. He seems to have been secretive and unsociable, seldom showing any emotion. A devout Christian, he wore a hair shirt and was much attracted to the more mystical aspects of the Catholic Church. He believed, mistakenly he was cut out to be a soldier and a leader of men. He could be energetic and enterprising on a short-term basis but lacked long-term determination. Most of all his view on life was entirely divorced from reality.

His policies in the early years of his rain show how uncertain the rest of his beliefs were. On one hand he refused to pardon the political prisoners left over from the 1821 revolutions, and increased the power of the church in piedmont. He increased also the already severe censorship laws so that Mazzini and Garibaldi left piedmont, soon to be followed by Gioberti who impatient to publish his proposals for a federation of Italian states presided over by the pope, soon left for the liberal city of Brussels. Cavour left piedmont as well. ‘That intellectual hell’, preferring the greater freedom of expression found almost anywhere else, including Austrian Lombardy.

Abbe Gioberti, was an exiled peidmontese theologian and philosopher who wrote del primato morale e civile degli Italiani (‘Of the moral and civil primacy of the Italians’),Popularity known as the primato ,in 1843.He believed that the pope and the Catholic Church should lead the Italian national revival. Geoberti favoured a federation of states aided by a ‘Cabinet’ of ruling princes, with the pope as president. He made no specific mention of the expulsion of Austria, and condemned revolutionary means to unity. Although Gioberti’s works attracted a fair amount of support, the reputation of the Papal States and the Church as reactionary and oppressive stood in the way of his ideas.

The Carbonari

Gharibaldi

(1807-1882)

Son of a fisherman from niece (Nizza), part of the kingdom of piedmont-Sardinia. At fifteen he ran away to sea and joined Mazzinis ‘young Italy’ movement. Garibaldi was sentenced to death for taking part in Mazzini’s planned invasion of piedmont-Sardinia in 1883,but escaped to South America where he spent many years of exile. He fought in the civil wars in Argentina and gained a reputation as a guerrilla leader. He returned home in 1848 and devoted himself to the Nationalist cause, so had the same views and attitudes as Mazzini.

Revolts 1831-3

In 1830 there was a revolution in France. Italian liberals had the Idea that the French would assist the Italian revolutions. Disturbances broke out again this time in Modena , parma,and the papal states.In these places the aim was to prevail upon their ruler to grant the constitution. In Modena Enrico Misley, the student son of a university professor he trusted the ruler Duke Franesco so revealed his plans of a united Italy,but his trust was betrayed and was arrested two days before the uprising was to start in Febuary 1831.

Misleys arrest advocated duke Francesco to believe that the menace was over and he went to Veinna to nagotiate Austrian help should it be needed. While he was away revolutionaries took over the city of Modena and set up a provisional government. This encouraged students in neighbouring Parma to organise riots and to demand a constitution from their ruler ,the duchess Marie louise fled in terror and within a month Duke Francesco had returned to Modena at the head of troops who remained loyal to him and quickly defeated the revolutionaries. Savage reprisals were taken and anyone suspected of supporting the rebels were arrested imprisoned exiled or executed.

Similar uprisings took place in the papal states , organized this time by the professional classes who resented the oppressive rule of the Church authorities. The papal government put up small amounts of resistance and a provisional government known as ‘The government of Italian provinces’ Was formed in Bologna in Febuary 1831.It didn’t last long . Austrian troops moved into the Papal states and defeated the Rebels. Minor revolutions continued during 1831 and 1832 but they were fiercely suppressed by the violent and undisciplined papal troops.

The revolutions of 1829 and 1831 achieved very little. In piedmont Naples and the papal states reactionary governments capacitated their hold with the help of Austria and by using Military force when essential. Naples recovered control over Sicily and made a future attempt at breaking away less likely by terminating trade guilds who’s members had been leaders of the revolution there. Where revolutions were successful in ousting their rulers, the success was only temporary and due more to the failure of Governments to take effective united action.

Local affairs, concerned only with limited areas, weakened the revolutions. There was little communication between the revolutionaries in the different states and even less co-operation. The revolutionaries in the different states had even less co-operation ; the revolutionary government in Bologna refused to send help to Modena and elsewhere revolutions were not co-ordinated. They relied heavily on a network of small assemblages of revolutionaries set up by the carbonari and other secret societies, but these were isolated units so their aims differed from place to place. Most revolutionaries were surprisingly moderate in their demands and not accustomed to violence. Usually all they were trying to achieve was the granting of a constitution to allow the people some part in government. The revolutionary governments were mainly middle class, except in Sicily where peasants were involved. Elsewhere revolutionary leaders didn’t encourage popular interest and support. Not surprisingly, ordinary people often welcomed back their past rulers with open arms because middle class revolutionaries didn’t want mass involvement in revolution. They feared allowing the mob to intervene that was less well educated and would animate a democracy that would unsettle society and its class divisions would reinstate monarchies as well as Republics.

In conclusion: I do not accord with the statement that he transformed attitudes but he did adapt many ways of thinking and aided reform. I believe Mazzini to be a famous important publisher and revolutionary that made many changes, that improved society.