The American Two Party System
Since the establishment of the American government, partisanship, with few exceptions has been the rule. On a few rare occasions, the American government congealed into a single party system, yet every time, the nation would return to its two party status. Why did this occur despite the warnings of many of the greatest men of the time? Why is it that what has consistently been portrayed as a unified front, is now divided into a multiple part system? The two party system, has often been a hindrance to American progression, but it has also been one of the greatest tools of the American government to prevent the formation of an American monarchy.
The idea of a two party system is elementary. However, the process of its evolution was much more difficult. The bi-party system created a new set of checks and balances - or as Richard Hofstadter referred to it, "a harmonious system of mutual frustration"- which prevented a concentration of power in one group, additionally, it shifted the power from the elite to the commoner (Hofstadter 9).
Despite the desire to keep the fledgling nation of America united in purpose as much as possible, it was only natural that the politicians of late 1700s early 1800s would divide into separate groups. It is rare to be able to find a room of one hundred or more people who will agree unconditionally with one another, especially in matters of state. It seems only natural that these people would divide into numerous groups comprised of people with whom they most agree, in order to strengthen their own causes.
With the crafting of the new American Constitution at Philadelphia in May of 1787 ("The Road to the Convention") came the first introduction of long lasting political parties. Delegates at the convention squared off into two groups; the Federalists, favoring a strong central government, and the anti-Federalists, advocating that the states retain their sovereignty as essentially free nations. The anti-Federalists particularly feared that the states would again come under the yoke of a tyrannical ruling group or monarchal figure as was the case in the colonial period (Newman 99). The two parties battled over the ratification of the new Constitution. The Federalists wanted a centralized government whereas, the anti-Federalists were opposed to it. As the battle over the Constitution waged on, the Federalists and anti-Federalists began the new process of state to state campaigning for a cause. The Federalist victory, in essence, came when the state of New York voted for the new government as a result of the persuasive Federalist Papers. This series of essays was written in 1787-88 by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay ("Federalist, The"). The Papers expressed, repeatedly, the ideas of the Federalists in such passages as follows:
A FIRM Union will be of the utmost moment to the peace and liberty of the States, as a barrier against domestic faction and insurrection ("The Federalist No. 9");
or in the passage borrowed from the works of Montesquieu:
"It is very probable that mankind would have been obliged at length to live constantly under the government of a SINGLE PERSON, had they not contrived a kind of constitution that has all the internal advantages of a republican, together with the external force of a monarchical government. I mean a CONFEDERATE REPUBLIC.
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A FIRM Union will be of the utmost moment to the peace and liberty of the States, as a barrier against domestic faction and insurrection ("The Federalist No. 9");
or in the passage borrowed from the works of Montesquieu:
"It is very probable that mankind would have been obliged at length to live constantly under the government of a SINGLE PERSON, had they not contrived a kind of constitution that has all the internal advantages of a republican, together with the external force of a monarchical government. I mean a CONFEDERATE REPUBLIC.
This form of government is a convention by which several smaller states agree to become members of a larger one, which they intend to form. It is a kind of assemblage of societies that constitute a new one, capable of increasing, by means of new associations, till they arrive to such a degree of power as to be able to provide for the security of the united body (The Spirit of Laws).
The new government under the Constitution was officially ratified by the required nine states on June 21, 1788 heralding a new age of democracy, self-rule, and political squabbling ("Constitution of the United States"). ("Federalist, The" "The Federalist No 9" "The Road to the Convention" The Spirit of Laws United States History 99).
Although the Constitutional Convention is often regarded as the birth place of the American party system, there had been political parties in the colonies for as long as there had been governing bodies (Newman 108). During the colonial times, it was not uncommon for groups to form in legislative assemblies to vote either for or against a bill, law, or statute. These groups, or, "Factions," as they were commonly known, almost always experienced a temporary existence and would commonly disband after the debate had ended (Newman 108). What really differentiated the old factions from the newer parties was not only that the parties were longer lasting, but more important that they existed across state lines, and on the different levels of government. (United States History 108).
After the new government was officially selected and its new president elected, another manifestation of the problems of partisanship came to light. The first president, George Washington, established an unofficial group of advisors known as his, "cabinet." Its name, borrowed from the English, referred to the King's closest advisors who would meet in small rooms known at the time as cabinets (Garraty 120). The new cabinet was composed of Washington's most trusted advisors, friends, and patriots, all of whom were political children of the Revolution, and many of them eventually attained the presidency. Members of the cabinet included Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, James Monroe, Patrick Henry, John Adams, then the vice president, and Thomas Jefferson, as well as others (Brogan 213). Tensions ran high in the cabinet as Jefferson, father of the Democratic-Republicans, and Hamilton, a fervent leader of the Federalists, spared over many matters of state, from the relatively inconsequential, to Hamilton's economic policy. Eventually Jefferson resigned from his post in frustration. (The American Pageant The Young Reader's Guide to United States History 120, The Penguin History of the United States 213).
In 1796, when George Washington announced that he would not seek a third term as president, a bitter political battle ensued (Bailey 193). The presidential election of the same year was to be fought between the two major political titans of the age, John Adams, a federalist from Massachusetts and Thomas Jefferson, father of the Democratic-Republicans, and a Virginia native. The campaign revolved around political stances, personality, and regional allegiances. In the end, Adams just barely defeated Jefferson in the Electoral College by the narrow margin of 71 votes for Adams to 68 votes for Jefferson (Bailey 194). When Washington officially signed over his power, he sent out a, "Farewell Address," to be printed in newspapers nationwide (Brogan 255). In his address he explicitly warned against the dangers of entangling alliances, regional sectionalism, and partisanship. He wrote:
Let me now take a more comprehensive view, and warn you in the most solemn manner against the spirit of the party generally. ("George Washington's Farewell Address")
His warnings were very farsighted and wise, but they were also too late to stop America from turning down the road toward a party system. ("George Washington's Farewell Address" The American Pageant 193-194, The Penguin History of the United States 255).
During his term as president, Adams contributed to the eventual downfall of the Federalist party. The Naturalization, Alien, and Sedition Acts were purportedly passed by a Federalist congress as a response to two current foreign affairs scandals (Axelrod 78). This trio of acts was however, an attempt by the incumbent party to quell support for the Democratic-Republicans. The first act, the Naturalization Act of 1798, extended the time, "in country," that an immigrant must spend in the United States before being eligible for citizenship from five years to fourteen (Axelrod 78). The following two acts were far more heinous, the Alien Act of 1798 empowered the president with the ability to evict any alien deemed a danger to the government (Garraty 33). Because many members of the Democratic-Republicans were recent immigrants, this act was a direct attack on the Democrats by the Federalists (Garraty 33). The final act, the Sedition Act, made it illegal for a person to slander the government, be it in speech or in writing, furthermore, it prohibited assembling, "with intent to oppose any measure...of the government" ("The Sedition Act"). All of these acts served to diminish the Federalist power base, resulting in its gradual removal from power over the period between 1798 through 1808. ("The Sedition Act" The Young Reader's Companion to American History 33, What every American Should Know About American History 78).
In the next elections, the roles which parties were to play in the future became obvious to all. Once again, the election was to be between Jefferson of the Democratic-Republicans, and the Federalist incumbent, John Adams. The 1800 election was typical of a several future elections where intra-party politics often caused the delivered victor to come from a different party altogether. A protracted fight between Adams and Hamilton had extended until the entire Federalist ranks had been engulfed and divided (Malone 129). Meanwhile, in New York City, Aaron Burr and his fellow Democratic-Republicans, built a new political power house known as Tammany Hall; the future home of the infamous Boss Tweed (Gonick 116). Tammany Hall brought many of the middle and lower class citizens of New York into the Democratic party and helped to deliver Jefferson to the presidency, with Burr as his vice-president. (The Cartoon History of the United States 116, Thomas Jefferson and His World 129)
With his first address as president, Jefferson attempted to unite the nation's political parties (Brogan 255). Jefferson's inaugural speech stated:
Every difference in opinion is not a difference in principle. We have called by different names brethren of the same principle. We are all republicans; we are all federalists. ("Thomas Jefferson's First Inaugural")
As president, Jefferson, who had been penned as an atheist, a radical, and a, "fire breathing salamander," was very successful and had a mind set, which was different from that of his contemporaries (Gonick 117). Despite being a supporter of the French Revolution, an event synonymous with blood and decapitation, Jefferson actually preferred the smart, forward thinking, and peaceful solution to problems. He cut taxes, paid off the debt, and more than doubled the territory of the United States, all this he did peacefully (Gonick 117). This was not, however, to say that he would hesitate to use force, as he had with the Barbary Pirates in the first few years of the 1800s (Malone 132). The American people loved their new president despite his failed attempts at an embargo, and his own hypocrisy. As a result, the Federalists, overcome by internal strife, corruption, the loss of its leader - Hamilton had been killed in a duel with the once vice-president, Aaron Burr - and its failure to listen to the wants of the American people, finally crumbled, thereby handing the power over to common people (Gonick 116). (The Cartoon History of the United States 116-117, The Penguin History of the United States 255, Thomas Jefferson and His World 132).
Although the Federalist party had broken down and the Democratic-Republicans were the dominant political party by 1808, by 1824, with the election of Jackson to power, the American populous had once again come to see the wisdom of a two party system. Conceptually, a two party system may seem to be divisive and an impediment to the democratic process. In reality, the idea of a multi-party organization is crucial to the democratic process. It not only allows for numerous points of view to be represented in government, it is fundamental to the system of checks and balances.
