The ever-increasing production capacity of economically growing countries did not coincide with growing markets. Europe was “suffocating”. Newly established states, such as Germany, in order to spur rapid industrialisation at home, introduced tariffs and quotas for foreign goods, which further decreased the number of markets for European goods. In order to evade social unrest at home (in particular in Great Britain because of non-resistant small family firms), due to the potential increase of unemployment, because of the potential necessity of decreasing industrial output, new markets had to be found. Europe’s market was treated by protectionism (Germany in particular). Colonial Powers also applied protectionism to their colonies in Asia, the Americas and Australia, which were either closed to non-owning countries or simply already saturated with European goods.
The process of industrialisation and the growing industrial output rapidly elevated the needed amounts of raw materials. The need for raw, and relatively cheap, materials to continue the growing industrialisation could only be found in unoccupied territories (which was especially true with the limited in natural resources Belgium).
Surplus capital was often more profitably invested overseas, where cheap labor, limited competition, and abundant raw materials made a greater premium possible. Lucrative opportunities were sought after by large firms (largely present in Germany), which had the financial capacity to invest heavily into colonies. These firms, through pro-colonial unions, applied pressure onto the reluctant Bismarck to acquire colonies in Africa (the only place left to do this), in order to enable these investments (the fact that German industrialists later invested into African colonies, even though they were burdened with financing them, showed how great was their determination). Therefore, in order to evade social unrest at home (Great Britain) or to seek the only possible and still lucrative investment opportunities (Germany), new markets had to be found, and Africa, being the only untouched territory on the globe, presented itself as a prime target for these economic advancements. These factors, inevitably directed the attention of interest-fulfillment seeking groups to Africa, the only place left of accomplishing their economic goals.
The economic needs, mentioned above, compelled European countries to turn their attention to the so far uncolonised regions of the globe. In the late nineteenth century, Africa was, alongside China, Indochina and the Pacific, the natural direction of colonial expansionism.
The colonisation of Africa was inevitable, not only because of economic reasons, but political ones, as well.
Up to around 1870-80s the only uncontested nation in terms of world hegemony was Great Britain, which was solely interested in the expansion of its colonies, leaving continental Europe embroiled and focused on its own affairs. However, with the unification of Italy in 1861, largely due to Cavour and the unification of Germany in 1871 by Bismarck, territorial issues, which kept continental Europe uninterested in colonies, were resolved. Since then, the nation-wide German conscience (although with Bismarck’s great reluctance), the empire-aspirant Italians and the isolated and humiliated French (during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 losing Alsace and Loraine) had put the acquiring of colonies as one of their top priorities. Owning colonies, at that time, was viewed as an ideal embodiment of a country’s greatness and political power. Hence, in order to be counted with, on the world’s political stage, a nation had to possess colonies (the perfect example being the small country of Belgium and Leopold II’s Congo colony). Africa, being the only continent still untouched and undivided amongst European Colonial Powers, therefore presented itself as an obvious and single place adequate for the fulfillment of these interests of raising national prestige. By possessing colonies in Africa, the Germans, Italians and the French, with their boosted morals, could finally feel as ‘great’ and proud amongst other nations, and diminish (and thus evade social unrest) the role of problems at home (which was especially true in relation to France). Even if, the governments of these countries did not see any advantages of possessing colonies, as was the case in Germany, they were extremely pressured to do so by various pro-colonial unions. Therefore, it is evident that, even if some factors (i.e. the need of evading social unrest at home [France]) did not succeed in compelling a country’s government into acquiring colonies in the only possible place left – Africa – other factors, such as great social pressure (pro-colonial unions in Germany) did succeed, making its colonisation inevitable.
The possession of colonies in Africa was also advantageous for military and strategic purposes. This was particularly true in regard to Great Britain and France.
A common practice amongst the Colonial Powers in safeguarding their already existing colonies was the occupation of adjacent territories, which were treated as distance-forcing between other encroaching Colonial Powers and the most treasured colonies of the safeguarding country. This was especially true in relation to the British Indian colony, which had been safeguarded from other Colonial Powers by the occupation of present-day Afghanistan. Nevertheless, in order to even further ensure the safety of their ‘jewel in the crown’, the British aspired to safeguard their sea routes to it. Since 1869, when the Suez Canal was built, these sea routes ran along the northern coastline of Africa, therefore, acquiring colonies in this part of Africa was inevitably and unrelentingly pursued by the British, who were staying true to their policy of safeguarding their prime colony of India (and at the same time, creating needed coal fueling depots).
The French, on the other hand, continuously regarding Germany as their main enemy, and desired to be able to make a successful military stance against it, in the possibility of war. In order to do this, the French army had to amass additional recruits, which the French population could not provide in a preferably short time. Therefore, the French were keen on increasing their country’s territory, along with their population. The only lands still left to the possibility of occupation (and which were relatively close) were those of Africa. Therefore, in order to execute its policy, the French government, inevitably, had to acquire the only available lands suited for this purpose – those of Africa.
There also existed socio-cultural reasons, which favoured the colonisation of Africa.
Many moral-guided Europeans regarded it as their duty, being the ‘enlightened’ and advanced ones, to bring civilisation, progress and the ‘true’ religion to the backward peoples. Since, Asia, the Americas and Australia were already being sufficiently “lectured” on the “proper” human ways, this left Africa as the only place to propagate civilisation, and since there was no lack of individuals committed to the cause, Africa inevitably became the destination of various priests.
Other versions of such impulses included social Darwinism. Applying Darwinism to the world’s social situation, the fittest only survived if they used their unique skills, in order to get an advantage in life. For a nation to continue existing, it was “compelled” to spread its influence, gaining territory. Once again, the only place left on the globe, which was adequate for this kind of activity was untouched Africa.
There was also the question of population emigration. France was resettling the ex-inhabitants of the German-occupied Alsace and Loraine to Algeria, in an attempt to stabilise this North African part of France. Great Britain, on the other hand, was rewarding retired soldiers with South African land. Nevertheless, this colonisation through emigration had an affect on certain coastal areas only, and would not have taken place if colonies had not been established before, and thus cannot be regarded as an inevitable colonisation process.
A vital factor, which enabled the rapid colonisation of Africa, in the first place, was technological advancement of the late nineteenth century. Industrialisation brought about rapid advancements in transportation and communication, especially in the forms of steam navigation, railroads, and telegraphs. Medical advances were also key, especially medicines for tropical diseases. The development of treatment enabled vast expanses of the tropics to be penetrated. Due to these advancements, European interests had finally been “let loose” onto Africa for fulfillment.
In the result of all the factors mentioned and already discussed above (economic, political, military and socio-cultural) the colonisation of Africa was inevitable. Over the period of the last twenty years of the nineteenth century, virtually the whole of Africa had been colonised. In contrast to the Americas, Asia and Australia, Africa had been dominated by a larger number of Colonial Powers: Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Portugal, and Spain. This reflected the new political and economic situation in Europe itself in the late nineteenth century.
