The Political Culture of Ireland Has Remained Stable Since the Foundation of the State
The Political Culture of Ireland Has Remained Stable Since the Foundation of the State
COURSE: Public Administration
MODULE: Government & Politics of Ireland
"The concept of 'political culture' posits an important role for the attitudes and orientations that people hold towards authority. It describes a configuration of beliefs, values and symbols common to a nation, or to large groups within a nation that are directed towards political institutions."1 According to Campbell, Feigbaum, Linden and Norpoth, this concept is the sum and substance of political culture. This essay is concerned with how and why the political culture of Ireland has remained the stable since the foundation of the state. The context within which Irish political cultural values have been acquired will be outlined and analysed. As argued by Coakley, political cultural values do not exist in isolation but are influenced by the social background of those who hold them, thus I will examine the evolution of certain aspects of Irish society which helps to characterise Irelands political culture. Further, I will endeavour to illustrate the direction that Irish political culture has taken since the foundation of the state since 1922.
Firstly, in order to get an understanding of what political culture means in this essay, I will elucidate political culture and define the theories and concepts underlying it. Lucien Pye, a theorist who identified political culture in the 1960s saw political culture as a means "to discover a method for working back from the complex subtleties of individual psychology to the level of the social aggregate which is the traditional plateau of political science"2. Also, Almond and Verba conceptualise the assumptions of political culture into four definite premises; civic virtue and responsibility, participatory and pluralistic democracy, order through rational bureaucracy and stability through modernisation. They see civic culture as "the kind of community life and social organisations that fosters civic virtue" 3. They view civic culture as reflecting democratic characteristics. In terms of participatory and pluralistic democracy they regard civic culture as based upon the toleration of individual freedoms and government through a unity of the governed. They state that "large groups of people who have been outside of politics are demanding entrance into the political system. And the elites are rare who do not profess commitment to this goal"4. With reference to order through rational bureaucracy, Almond and Verba believe that ration bureaucracy can be divulged to the elites of nations and that these nations can mimic the "technocratic image of a polity in which authoritarian bureaucracy predominates and political organisation becomes a devise for human and social engineering"5. Stability through modernisation depends on stable economic and social conditions such as industrialisation, urbanisation, rate of literacy, and level of education. The combination of these premises led Almond and Verba to political culture. They defined political culture in terms of political orientation and attitudes held by individuals in relation to their political system. When they speak of a political culture in society they refer to "the political system as internalised in the cognition, feelings, and evaluations of its population. People are induced into it just as they are socialised into non-political roles and social system"6. Almond and Verba's premises of political culture reflect ideal rather than real situations, their premises are descriptive rather than analytical. Political culture is conceived of in an ideal form of political culture, where change is incremental and gradual. Rather than being independent of the political system, political culture instead depends on the system.
In relation to Basil Chubb's insight to Irish political culture we can identify seven features that shape our political culture framework. These features are identified as Britain's influence; nationalism; the dying pre-industrial society; Irish Catholicism; authoritarianism; anti-intellectualism and loyalty.
Development of the modern state in Ireland was firstly accomplished under the British monarchy. Prior to this development, Ireland showed little signs of following in the footsteps of their European counter-parts. Thus the influence of Britain upon Irish politics has been pervasive, showing that the British legacy of the new state was enormous. The constitutional forms adopted were those of British parliamentary democracy, i.e. the Irish governmental system was mirrored on that of the British system. "That the political institutions then established and the services then taken over continued largely unaltered in basic design was due, first, to the conservatism of the community and its leaders; second, to the continued cultural impact of British contacts at almost as high a frequency as hitherto; and third, to a long-continuing ignorance of the experience of other countries."7 Although Ireland was then politically independent of Britain, it's institutions and political ideas were modelled closely upon those of Britain. It can be said that the British influence was ironic, in that Irish history shows a nationalist struggle to break free from Britain but also, the Irish shows great admiration for the political structures and the way of life in Britain.
Nationalism is one the principle features of political culture in Ireland. The Irish desperately wished to break free from British culture, which was heavily embedded in the Irish society. In time nationalist feeling evolved, asserted itself and grew stronger. "Irish nationalism, as it took organised mass political form in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, had its core of support in that part of the Irish population which was isolated by all these divisions; the Gaelic, Catholic, agrarian, peasant community which was the largest element in Irish society outside of Eastern Ulster." 8The state itself owed its ...
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Nationalism is one the principle features of political culture in Ireland. The Irish desperately wished to break free from British culture, which was heavily embedded in the Irish society. In time nationalist feeling evolved, asserted itself and grew stronger. "Irish nationalism, as it took organised mass political form in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, had its core of support in that part of the Irish population which was isolated by all these divisions; the Gaelic, Catholic, agrarian, peasant community which was the largest element in Irish society outside of Eastern Ulster." 8The state itself owed its existence to the successful outcome of a typical nationalist movement for independence. Nationalist feelings still remain high because of the unsettled matter of the situation of the North.
The dying pre-industrial society is yet another characteristic of the political culture in Ireland. "The cultural history of the country after the industrial revolution was one of modern urban values permeating an older peasant society inexorably but in differing degrees"9. In pre-industrial society the peasants, or the people living in rural areas in the Irish case, regarded the state as hostile and external. However, as Ireland developed politically and industrially this idea of the peasant society began to diminish making way for a new Ireland in terms of political culture and also in economic terms.
The dominance of the Catholic Church strengthened older traditions and obstinate attitudes. Most Irish people are conscious of religious differences, with 95% of the population in 1974 being Roman Catholics.10 The political effects of the dominance of the Catholic Church have been tremendous. From the beginning the Irish State has been unquestionably Catholic. The influence of the Catholic Church on the educational system in Ireland was immense, being both direct and indirect. The
Catholic Church is strikingly undemocratic and hierarchical, strengthening authoritarianism.
Authoritarianism has been commonly used as a characteristic of Irish society. In the context here, the word is used in a very specific sense: "by authoritarianism is meant a collective disposition to defer to decisions from those in superior positions in a power hierarchy"11. Chubb discusses the point that authoritarian attitudes are not conducive to the successful practice of democracy. In a society in which the citizens feel isolated from the policy-making process, the state is seen as external to society. So while the state laws are obeyed, it's not through a sense of duty but rather a fear of coercion. Thus the argument contesting authoritarianism may be recapitulated as "Irish people defer to authority collectively in principle, while reserving the right individually to frustrate it"12. It is surprising at first glance to see democracy and authoritarianism to exist side by side, however when studied closely at the relationship of both them is evident that both are compatible. It has been argued that the coexistence of democracy and authoritarianism are perfect elements for the function of a perfect society.
Loyalty has been perceived as another characteristic of Irish political culture. In traditional rural society loyalty has been a particular important quality. "In the nationalist movement, loyalty to the concept of the Irish nation became identified for most with faithfulness to one's religion and to the Church. The fierce partisanship evoked by the split over the treaty and the civil war that ushered in the new state put a further premium upon fidelity to one's leaders"13. This loyalty in Ireland wasn't really toward ideas but rather to persons and institutions. Finally the characteristic of anti-intellectualism must be addressed. The social and historical factors that led to authoritarian attitudes and also the notion of loyalty created anti-intellectualism in society. In political term, Chubb argues that after the emanation of the new state, a rural, nationalist and Catholic order didn't feel the necessity nor got fresh initiatives from its leaders. All of these characteristics explained above helped shape Ireland's political culture.
The investigation of the political culture of Ireland must be examined under three topical headings: socio-economic culture, religious evolution and the British legacy.
Firstly the notion of socio-economic activity must be explored. The transition of 'traditional' to 'modern' is an integral element to the evolution of political culture in Ireland. 'Traditional' society has been classed as one in which the population is predominantly rural, illiterate and have regional dialects with poorly developed communication networks. The opposite is the case in a 'modern' society. The population is urban, literate, industrialised and has good communication networks. As the nation of Ireland progressed more and more from a predominately traditional society to a newer modernised society, the political culture of the state developed. The majority of the population had a better quality of life and therefore acquired new belief and ideas that influenced the political culture. The level of education and the growth of literacy in Ireland grew rapidly. This was mainly due to the fact that the Catholic Church was the main preceptor. Prior to 1922 the British educational system contributed to the Anglicisation of the country. The Irish language re-emerged in the educational system, and although it's not as strong as once before, the promotion of it began once again. In terms of economic stability in Ireland, what was once known as an economically peripheral nation began to evolve into an industrially advanced country attracting foreign investment worldwide. This, both economic and social development, account for the political culture in Ireland today.
According to the theorist Farrell, the Catholic Church has acted as a modernising mechanism in Ireland. It has done so in three ways; by developing an extensive educational system as previously discussed; by providing a contrivance for augmented social mobility; and by "exerting a structurally unifying influence over much of the country and successfully adapting itself to change" 14. It is undoubtedly the case that the Catholic Church exerted a structurally unifying influence over much of the country. The Church became involved in political movements- Catholic emancipation and the Act of Union.
Perhaps the most influential factor of all contributing to Ireland's political culture is the British legacy. Farrell argues that the legacy of the British rule in Ireland left a tremendous impact on the Irish political mentality. This is mainly due to the fact that British presence in Ireland lasted for centuries. Britain bestowed on Ireland its dominant language, its culture and its social practices. But more relevantly it conferred on Ireland its political vocabulary, institutions, structures, concepts and patterns of behaviour. Even long after the foundation of the state, Britain and Ireland maintained at close economic alliance, going as far as still sharing the same currency until 1979. Historical issues as well as geographical issues determined the British influence, with political ideas moving freely across the sea.
I have discussed the characteristics of traditional Irish political culture and the factors underpinning them. However according to Coakley and Gallagher there have been large-scale social changes in Ireland that may bring political cultural change in their wake. After many decades of stability, change in political culture has been evident over the last thirty years or so. For example, the number of people involved in agriculture has dropped dramatically and the urban population throughout the country has extended dramatically. Agriculture as a way of life has developed into a business and there has been a communications and technological revolution. All these factors contribute significantly to Irish political culture. Secondly, as illustrated previously, Catholicism has always been a major contributory factor to Ireland's political culture, and although the majority of Irish citizens remain Catholic the character of Catholicism has changed somewhat. This has been reflected in the fact that a lot of individuals have obtained independence from the clerical rigidities. Thirdly, the legacy of Britain in Ireland has faded out considerably. This may be due to Ireland's other international influences which came about as a result of the communications revolution and also Ireland's accession into the EC. Also the trouble which erupted in Northern Ireland in 1968 has resulted in a gap in the north and south.
It is important to look behind the characteristics of the political culture in Ireland to the extent of fragmentation in Irish society. There are two main social cleavages that need to be mentioned: the core-periphery cleavage and the class cleavage. With regards to the core-periphery cleavage, on the periphery side, although agricultural labourers, small farmers and large commercial farmers have clashing interests, these are now rarely articulated. On the core side, i.e. industrial, an urban proletariat developed slowly, and "levels of politicised class conflict remained low by European standards."15 It seems that the cleavages mentioned overlap and encourage subcultures within the broad umbrella of Irish political culture. Firstly, "there are elements of a rural/agrarian/clerical pole opposite an urban/non-agrarian/secular one. Those in the first category are disposed to be more differential to established authority structure and more loyal to traditional political cultural values; those in the latter category arguing for a freeing of the decision-making process from unelected influences, and from a separation from the church and state".16 It can also be argued the those in the first category are more likely to be more nationalist than those in the second category.
In light of these social changes in Ireland, how can we see the Irish political culture of the future? Coakley and Gallagher believe that "as regards attitudes to the democratic process, it is expected that Irish political culture will accept formal mechanisms of participant decision-making and be less authoritarian, anti-intellectual and personalist, or in other words, that people will expect formal rules to be followed and will be less differential to traditional power groups"17. They also state that the Irish people's commitment to nationalism appears to have declined according to surveys since 1973.
In summarising what has been discussed above, there are many factors influencing the structure and indeed the stability of the political culture of Ireland. These most notably are the British influence, nationalism, the dying pre-industrial society, the Catholic Church, authoritarianism, anti-intellectualism and loyalty. It is evident throughout the essay that these have had a huge impact on the political culture in Ireland since the foundation of the state. To a degree the factors assisted in the stability of the Irish political culture, however issues in society never remain static, and since the foundation of the state these underlying factors have evolved, although not in their entirety. Whilst the British influence still remains highly efficacious, there are other outside influences which have an effect on our political culture. The same can be said about the Catholic Church. The Church was extremely authoritarian when the state was first established, but their influence has weakened during the past few decades, evidence of this is seen in the way of divorce, contraception, and abortion issues. Also the pre-industrial society of Ireland is gone. Ireland is rapidly becoming an extremely diverse commercial and industrial country, bringing with it many new ways of life and beliefs, which unavoidably changes the shape and nature of the Irish political culture. Nationalism is still very much intact in Irish political culture, and in my opinion, think it will always be so. Loyalty, which was a part of the design in the scheme of Irish political culture, seems to be fading. In a country, which is progressively becoming more and more urban, the concept of loyalty doesn't possess the strength it once had on the political culture. Also the authoritarianism and anti-intellectualism is fading as a result of Ireland's development into an industrial country and a member of the European Union. In conclusion, it would be inaccurate to say that the political culture wasn't stable, however certain issues, both social and political, arose to change the shape of political culture in Ireland. Although the Irish political culture didn't go through a complete metamorphosis, change was inevitable and happened gradually resulting in the fact that cultural political has not remained completely stable since the foundation of the state.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
. Campbell, Feigenbaum, Linden, Norpoth (1995) " Politics and Government in Europe Today." Houghton Mifflin Company: Boston.
2. Pye, L, Verba, S, "Political culture and Political Development" Princeton University Press: Princeton
3. Almond, G & Verba, S, "The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations" Princeton University Press: Princeton. 1963
4. Chubb, B, (1987) "The Government and Politics of Ireland" 2nd Ed. Longman Group: London.
5. Chubb, B, (1992) "The Government and Politics of Ireland" 3rd Ed. Longman Group: London.
6. Orridge, A (1977) "Explanations of Irish Nationalism: A Review and Some Suggestions" Journal of the Conflict Research of Society.
7. Coakley, J, Gallagher M. (1992) "Politics in the Republic of Ireland" PSAI Press: Galway.
8. Farrell, Brian (1970) "The Foundation of Dail Eireann: Parliament and Nation-Building. Gill and Macmillan: Dublin
Campbell, Feigenbaum, Linden, Norpoth (1995) " Politics and Government in Europe Today." Houghton Mifflin Company: Boston. Pg. 229
2 Pye, L, Verba, S, "Political culture and Political Development" Princeton University Press: Princeton. Pg. 9.
3 Almond, G & Verba, S, "The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations" Princeton University Press: Princeton. 1963 Pg. VII
4 Ibid., 1963 Pg. 4
5 Ibid., 1963, Pg. 6
6 Ibid., 1963, Pg. 14
7 Chubb, B, (1987) "The Government and Politics of Ireland" 2nd Ed. Longman Group: London. Pg.9
8 Orridge, A (1977) "Explanations of Irish Nationalism: A Review and Some Suggestions" Journal of the Conflict Research of Society. Pg. 49
9 Chubb, B, (1992) "The Government and Politics of Ireland" 3rd Ed. Longman Group: London. Pg. 12
0 Chubb, B, (1987) "The Government and Politics of Ireland" 2nd Ed. Longman Group: London .Pg. 17
1 Coakley, J, Gallagher M. (1992) "Politics in the Republic of Ireland" PSAI Press: Galway. Pg. 30
2 Ibid., 1992, Pg. 30
3 Chubb, B, (1987) "The Government and Politics of Ireland" 2nd Ed. Longman Group: London .Pg. 21
4 Farrell, Brian (1970) "The Foundation of Dail Eireann: Parliament and Nation-Building. Gill and Macmillan: Dublin, Pg. 23
5 Coakley, J, Gallagher M. (1992) "Politics in the Republic of Ireland" PSAI Press: Galway. Pg. 37.
6 Coakley, J, Gallagher M. (1992) "Politics in the Republic of Ireland" PSAI Press: Galway. Pg. 38
7 Coakley, J, Gallagher M. (1992) "Politics in the Republic of Ireland" PSAI Press: Galway. Pg. 36
