Why are elections needed?
- Participation – Ownership
- Democracy
- New voters have a chance
- Direct democracy – Representative democracy
- To give people a selection
- To please the people
- Legitimacy – Power – Authority
- To better the economy
Did You Know?
- Labour won a large share of the vote in 1955 than in 1997.
- Labour won 209 seats with 27.6% of the vote in 1983, but the Liberal-SPD Alliance won 23 seats despite gaining 25.4% of the votes.
Meaning that 1Labour MP per 40,000 votes
1LibDem MP per 338,000 votes
- LibDems – in 1997 despite their vote falling by 70,000 votes since 1992, still gained an extra 26 seats.
- 1992 – Conservative gained 14,091,891 votes giving them a 21 seat majority.
- 1997 – Labour gained 13,516,632 votes giving them a 179 seat majority.
- Pspehology – The study of elections and voting behaviour.
- Popular Vote – percentage of Britain’s voters that support a party.
Majoritarian System-
- First Past The Post
- Used in UK, USA, Canada and India
- Candidates who gain the most amounts of votes in the constituency in which they are running in become the MP for that constituency and wins a seat in Parliament. The party that wins the most amounts of seats in parliament wins power.
- REASON FOR FIRST PAST THE POST
- Representative Democracy
- Definate Winner
- Gives candidates reason to motivate the people
- Simple
- Produces a stable government
- REASON AGAINST FIRST PAST THE POST
- Over-represents leading parties
-
Under-represents 3rd parties
- Encourage tactical voting
Ballot System (second chance)-
- Used in France
- A candidate needs to obtain at least 50% of the vote to avoid a second ballot.
- If they don’t, the least popular candidates are eliminated.
- Voters can reconsider their votes.
Alternative Vote-
- Used in Ashers losing Australia.
- Number each candidate in preferential order.
-
Candidates with fewer 1st preferences are eliminated.
- Preferences are then redistributed until one absolute majority winner (50%)
Supplementary Vote-
- Used in London’s Mayoral Election
- Just two preferences
- If no 50% majority then all other candidates are eliminated and the second votes top up the original.
Proportional Systems-
An electoral system which produces a proportional relationship between votes cast and seats won.
List System-
- Used in E.U elections and Israel
- Each Party draws up a line of candidates
- The size of the list is based on the number of seats won
- The proportion of votes received determines the number of seats a party can fill.
- 1997 U.K. election, if a list system would have been used would have seen Labour 89 seats short of a majority
Single Transferable Vote (STV)-
- Used in Ireland
- More than one member constituencies
- Electors rank candidates in order of preference.
- Quota established as a threshold of winning a seat – for example fir a 5-member constituency 20% of the vote is required. For a 2 member constituency 50% is required.
- Votes surplus to the quota are redistributed to fill other seats.
- Bottom candidates are eliminated, preferences are then redistributed.
- Surplus votes are counted last, but may be different to the ones in the other pile.
- Retains the constituency link.
Additional Member System (AMS)-
- Used for electing Scottish Parliament
- Combines proportionally with First Past The Post
- Each voter has 2 votes, one for the candidate and one for the party.
- Constituency MP’s are voted under First Past The Post
- Other MP’s from a regional and National List and are elected under the list system.
Electoral Reform in Britain:
-
Based on the rise of the ~Liberal Party , 3rd parties lose out on First Past The Post.
- New electoral systems used for E.U. devolved assemblies and the London Mayor.
Jenkins Report-
- Jenkins looked at the issue of electoral reform
- Suggested that FPTP be replaced with AV Top-UP
- A hybrid electoral system based on AMS
- Elect 80-85% of the MP’s by AV
- Topped up by a list system.
Political Parties:
2 Party Systems-
- 2 parties have formed Government since 1945
-
FPTP damages 3rd parties
- Since 1800
- Tories/Whigs
- Tories/Liberal
- Tories/Labour
- Majority of seats have belonged to 2 parties
- The British system shows confrontation
Not a 2 Party System-
- 3 or more parties have formed Government-Wartime Coalitions.
- Confrontational politics depends upon the region
- Windsor – Tories/Liberals
- Slough – Tories/Labour
- Welsh Assembly – Multi-party
Party systems across the world-
- 0 Parties – Saudi Arabia
- 1 Party - Zimbabwe
- 2 Parties – USA
- 2.5 Parties – Germany
- Dominant Party – Japan
- Multi-Party (Stable) – France
- Multi-Party (Unstable) – Italy
Main Functions of a Party-
- Recruitment
- Participation
- Coalitions of interests
- Communication
- Speeches
- Meetings
- Conferences
- Publications
- Web-Sites
- Accountability and control
- Accountable at elections
- Identify who is in-charge
Types of Parties-
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Cadre - Loose group of MP’s and local notables, i.e. West Windsor Residence Association
-
Mass - Extensive active members across the country
-
Ideological - Labour and Clause 4, have to follow socialist beliefs
-
Pragmatic - Tony Ditching Clause 4 and the Conservative parties Philosophy
Difference Between a Political Party and a Pressure Group-
- Parties- Seek power through Parliamentary Representation
- Pressure Groups- Seek influence generally on single issues – Green Peace
- Trade Unions- Technically a pressure group but mostly lower classes
What were the beliefs of Traditional Conservatism?
- Keeping things as they are (Status Quo)
- Class system
- Conservatives believe strongly in the class system, although class systems lap over each other.
- The various classes are bound together in an organic society.
- Wealth carries with it obligations, an obligation to assist those less fortunate.
- A paternalist structure entailing a duty of voluntary charity or an acceptance of reform.
- The organic society (interdependent)
- Elitism
- One Nation Conservatism
- A complete contradiction to traditional Conservatism.
- Work within the welfare state to embrace social reform and state intervention.
- Conciliation of unions, the end of Empire and a move towards European Integration.
- 1951-1964, Traditional conservatives were outraged, much the same way Old Labour has been outraged with Tony Blair’s New Labour theories.
- Reassurance of one nation
- Nationalism
- Gradual pragmatic reform
- Social collectivism
- Private property
- Social pragmatism
- Paternalism
- Patriotism
- Strong law and order
- Philosophy of imperfection
- Conservatives believe that individuals possess and ‘Evil Streak’.
- Therefore a need for authority – a strong state and strong government to maintain law and order and restrain violent and anti-social behaviour.
- For example Howard’s law and order policies of the mid 1990’s or peels information of the metropolitan police in 1828.
- Strong state
- Individual evil streak
Thatcherism-(1983)
- Free market and competition
- Privatisation and the reining back of the state
- Restoring the authority of the government
- Defence of National sovereignty
- Cut public spending and taxation
- The rediscovery of true Conservatism
- Sale of Council Houses
- Privatisation of Nationalised industries
- Economic competition (No monopolies)
- Rejection of privatisation of the Post Office and British Rail
- No real reduction in over all spending
- The state was re-structured rather than reined back
- Pursued policies such as the poll tax
- A blend of the free economy (neo-Liberalism) and the strong state (neo-Conservatism)
- Sentiments of Nationalism and Patriotism (Falklands, Gulf War and Europe)
- Strong believer of the Union and strong family values.
- Based on the theories of Smith, Hayek and Freidrich.
Conservatism-
-
Keeping things as they are i.e. a retention of status quo
-
Old Toryism and 19th Century Conservatism was suspicious and resistant to change, an anti-thesis to the revolution in France and America
-
Edmund Burke “Reflections to the Revolution in France” lays the foundations for modern Conservatism
- Burkes Beliefs-
- Attack on the values of the French Revolution
- Reassertion of tradition
- The organic society
- Gradual Pragmatic Reform
- Peel’s Tomworth Manifesto 1837, was based on Burke’s work and is created for the re-birth of Modern Conservatism
- ARGUMENTS AGAINST-
-
Conservatives were suspicious of ‘Age of Reason’, a threat to traditional religious and secular authority
- Liberalism was the ideology of he rising capitalist class (industrial revolution), Conservatism reflected the interests of the powerful landed classes.
- Conservatives believe in:
- A period of slow change is needed to avoid a massive social upheaval.
- The lessons of the past act as a guideline for the future.
-
“We cannot know where we are, much less where we are going until we know where we have been” (Niskeet, Conservative)
-
Conservatism held its own in conflict with the Liberals in the 19th Century and then dominated the 20th Century as it adapted to change.
- Accepted the principle of Keynesian demand management, the Welfare State, the mixed economic planning.
Modern Conservatism-
- Flexible pragmatism
- Thatcher’s legacy is a genuine monkey on the backs of the Conservatives
- Major continued some of her work – privatizing the railways, promoting competition in schools
- John Major, post 1992 election however, his electoral position was weak and he was the mercy of Euro-sceptics
- Hague- Could not balance keeping the blue rinse the brigade and instigating fresh policies
- Duncan Smith- Dull and spent too much time attacking Labour rather than suggesting new policies
- Howard- Has managed to distance himself away from Thatcher, but the problems of identity remain.
Problems of Blair-
- He has essentially stolen the Conservatives privatisation aims and tougher crime policies
So what do the Conservatives stand for? WELL THE ELECTORATE DOESN’T REALLY KNOW.
Liberalism:
- No such thing as a nation, race or socio-economic class.
- Individuals do not belong to a group
- Everyone pursues their own self interest …..”What’s in it for me?”
- Individuals must be free to pursue their own self interest
- Freedom of thought
- Freedom of Expression
- Humans are best judged on their own self interest
- Rulers, Priests or Civil servants can’t decide what is best for them
- Bentham – If everyone followed their own self-interest a greater majority would be happy.
- Political and legal equality
- Equality before law
- Equality of opportunity, but not of outcome
- Retain a characteristic Liberal interest individual rights and civil liberties
- Liberal Welfare policies
- Strong commitment to constitutional reform
- Internationalist, humanitarian interest in foreign affairs
- Not overtly liberal
- Do they co-operate or compete with Labour?
- Support for radical constitutional reform
- Electoral reform
- Elected House of Lords
- Devolution
- Regional Governments
- Weaker monarchy
- A radical open-,minded approach to social and moral problems (crime and Drugs)
Socialism and Labour:
- Socialism is a product of modern industrial capitalism.
- Reflected the interests of the growing industrial workers.
- Promoted a radical redistribution of income and wealth.
- Planned rather than a free market economy.
- Socialism is different from Communism in that Communism takes redistribution further.
A Radical Ideology-
- Conservatism involves a defence of traditional social arrangements.
- Liberalism gives support for moderate social reform.
- Socialism, a fundamental challenge to traditional interests and industrial capitalism – an answer to the rapid industrialization and poor living conditions of the workers.
Birth of the Labour Party-
- Formed in the year 1902, an alliance between trade unions, the social democratic society, the Fabians and the International Labour Party.
- Trade Unions more interested in obtaining better working conditions through the current system, rather than a socialist overthrow of the system. More radical Liberalism than Socialism.
Clause 4-
- Inserted into the Labour party Manifesto -1918
- To secure the workers by hand or by brain the full fruits of their industry and the most equitable distribution possible, upon the basis of the common ownership of the means of production and distribution.
How Socialist is Labour?-
- The Labour party has traditionally remained committed to gradual parliamentary reform rather than a revolutionary transformation of social, economic and political reform.
- Saville describes their moderate trade Unionist and reformist their moderate trade unionist and reformist stance as Labourism, rather than socialism.
Atlee’s government 1945
- Defined Labour’s idea of Socialism
- Common ownership of the ‘commanding heights of the economy’ – Nationalisation of industries; gas, electricity etc.
- Keynesian demand management the key (pay way out of trouble).
- The key feature was the Welfare State, creation of the NHS etc.
The Labour Party is a democratic socialist party. It believes that by the strength of our common endeavour in which power, wealth and opportunity are n the hands of the many, not the few.
Radicalism, New Labour Style-
- Devolution
- National minimum wage
- New deal
- Social Chapter
- Joining the European Court of Human Rights
Is New Labour Tory in disguise?-
- Acceptance of the free market
- Private-Public partnerships
- Strong on law and order – 2005 Terror Bill
- Private Finance Initiatives to fund public sector investment
Has ideology Died?
- Is new Labour the first anti-ideology, based on globalization?
- Global issues make it difficult to operate in isolation
- A fresh brand of Consensus Politics.
- Free Market economy
- Business Friendly Politics
- Conservatives have abandoned family values for a commitment to public services.
Pressure Groups:
- Pressure Groups are informal political institutions that seek to influence the making and implementation of public policy
- Green Peace
- Fathers for Justice
- Make Poverty History
What do they do?
- They cover a broad spectrum from the large business with high level contacts at national and European level to the smallest local groups.
- Secret behind the scenes lobbying of politicians and influential figures
- More people belong to Pressure Groups than Political Parties
- The study of pressure Groups and influence is essential in understanding how the system works.
They are different to Political Parties-
- They do not normally contest in elections.
- When they stand for election, they don’t aim to from a government.
- Their campaigns are based on single issue policies.
They are similar to Political Parties-
- They are based on representation and participation
- They form a mechanism for the expression of people’s interest.
- They influence government and government policy
- Provide funds
- Sponsor candidates
- Influence the shaping of policies
Types of Pressure Groups-
- Based on the performance of an economic function
- CBI – Central Business Institute
- BMA – British Medical Association
- Law Society
- NUT – National Union for teachers
- Based on shared attitudes and values
- Green Peace
- Amnesty International
- Shelter
- Charter 88
A New Social Movement:
- Wider focus than a single issue, national or even global in it’s outlook.
- No HQ, no staff, just groups linked by the internet, global, anarchic and chaotic.
- Environmentalism
- Pressure Groups i.e. Green Peace
- Political Parties i.e. The Green Party
- Action – Protest and Direct, i.e. Rainbow Warrior
- They include a wide variety of ecologists, conservationists, eco-warrior etc…
Victims of Social Movement-
- Iron Triangle of Global Capitalism
- IMF – International Monetary Fund
- WTO – World Trade Organisation
- World Bank
Multi Nationals-
- McDonalds
- Coca Cola
- Nike
- Texaco
- GAP
- Microsoft
- Disney
Core Targets for all Pressure Group types-
- The core executive
- PM, MP’s, Ministers, Civil servants
- Parliament
- House of Lords
- Public Opinion
- Media
- Word of Mouth
- Local Institutions
- Schools
- Hospitals
Do Pressure Groups make the UK democratic? FOR
- Participation and Political Access
- Improvement of Government
- Information provided affects quality
- Pluralism – Freedom of Association
- PG’s serve as vital links between Government and Social
- Assist in the dispersal of Political Power
- Social Progress
- New issues to be debated i.e. environmentalism
- Social Cohesion
- Safety Values for grievances
- Opposition
- Expose Information, Improving accountability
Do Pressure Groups make the UK democratic? AGAINST
- Sectionalism and Selfishness
- Only favour the well organised
- Anti-Parliamentary democracy
- Insider Groups may not work in public interest
- Elitism
- Re-enforces existing class and power structure
- Pluralistic Stagnation
- Too many groups, lots of contrasting aims, can immobilize the system
- Social Disharmony and Dislocation
- Intensifies feeling of injustice by highlighted groups
- Failure of Opposition
Power – Physical
Authority – Theoretical
Mandate – The right to put a list of policies forward, but it isn’t exactly a right, it is compulsive.
Manifesto – A list of policies that have been put forward, 1 policy for example would be the Banning of Fox Hunting in 2003 set by the Labour Party.
The British Constitution:
What is a Constitution?
A Constitution is a set of rules and conventions that lays down the powers and functions of state institutions and their relationship with each other.
What is are Institutions?
- Government
- Parliament
- Judiciary
- Executive
- Legislative
- Monarchy
- Parliament
THE UK DOESN’T HAVE A CONSTITUTION!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Constitutions can be
- Written/Unwritten
- Flexible/Inflexible
- Relates to the ease in which a constitution can be changed.
- In Britain a simple change in the law can change the constitution.
-
Unitary/Federal
- A state is one and indivisible, i.e. France and Britain
- All levels of Government are subordinate to the central Government, or ‘Sovereign State’.
- A state which has several layers of Government
- Each layer has a clearly defined role, as laid out in its Constitution.
- Codified/Uncodified
Britain’s constitution is unwritten as it is not contained in a single authoritative document.
Why hasn’t Britain got a Constitution?
- Unlike America and France, Britain has not undergone a revolution or a regime change.
- Britain’s rules are written in Parliamentary Statutes, so it is better to describe it as ‘Uncodified’, rather than ‘Unwritten’.
5 SOURCES OF UK LAW
- Common Law – Decisions of Courts
- Statute Law – Acts of Parliament
- Conventions – Unwritten Rules
- Laws and Customs of Parliament – Procedures
- Works of Authority – Expert Texts
- EU Law
Ultimately our UNCODIFIED and UNITARY Constitution outlines the rules of:
-
The Constitutional Monarchy (The Head of State, The Queen)
- Reigns but does not Rule
- Queen retains the right to be consulted and to warn of any perils
- Powers have been transferred to the Prime Minister, such as Declare War, Make Treaties and Dissolve Parliament.
- Theses are known as ‘Royal Prerogative’
-
Parliamentary Sovereignty (The Powers and Legitimacy of Parliament)#
- “The dominant characteristic of the British Constitution” (BAGEHOT)
- Parliamentary authority is unlimited
- Unless the EU are involved of course
- Since 1973 the UK has possessed dual constitutional arrangements
- As an independent Unitary State
- As a member of the European Union
-
Representative Democracy (Members of Parliament represents the people from the constituencies)
- Needed for Parliamentary Sovereignty to work
- The right of each adult to vote (FRANCHISE) was not achieved until 1928
- Impact of the House of Lords (Parliamentary Act, 1911)
- How representative is the government
-
The Rule of Law (The Law of the Land)
- Fundamental Principle
- People are subject to the Rule of Law
- No-one is above the Law
- A.V. Dicey (1835-1922) is the main author
- Enshrines principles such as natural justice, fairness and reasonableness
Devolution-
- Power is devolved from the centre, but unlike Federalism, it can be returned.
- I.e. Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland.
- However, it is unlikely that power is returned, more likely that further powers will be given out, making the UK Semi-Federal.
Constitutionalism-
- The Govt. works within the understood rules of a constitution
Codification-
- Rules are written down in a single document
Entrenchment-
- Rules are written telling you how a constitution can be amended
- i.e. in USA 2/3rds majority of the Senate and House of Representatives is needed in order to amend the constitution.
Supremacy-
- The constitution is the highest power
Anti-Constitutionalism-
-
When people are against the idea that Government in which power is distributed and limited by a system of laws that must be obeyed by the rulers.
Unconstitutional action-
- When People don’t follow the rules and regulations set down by the government
Liberal Constitution-
- A balance between governmental powers within parliament.
Labour and the Jenkins Commission-
The Demands of Charter 88-
- A bill of Rights which reflects the first 10 amendments to the USA Constitution.
- Freedom of information
- A fair electoral system
- A reformed democratic second chamber (house of lords)
- A written Constitution
The end of Parliamentary Sovereignty and the Unitary State-
- Changes since 1997 have not really challenged Sovereignty, membership of the EU however clearly has.
- The use of referenda, although not binding, does commit parliament.
- The Human Rights Act, alters balance between Govt. and the Judiciary.
- Devolution – English MP’s have lost the responsibility for legislation in Scotland, but Scottish MP’s have not in English constituencies
- THE PAISLEY QUESTION
Do we need a British Constitution?
Purposes of a constitution:
- Defines the limits on government
- States basic laws
- Distributes powers within a political system
- Rights of the citizens
- Fair and free elections
- Defines sovereign territory