The first Dalai Lamas and the emergence of the Ming Dynasty (15th and 17th centuries)
By the 15th century power had shifted from the kings of old to the new religious leaders. The new system of government was under the direct control of the Dalai Lamas. Which are the highest-ranking religious leaders in the Buddhist community of Tibet. In the east, the Chinese Ming Dynasty overthrew their Mongol leaders and began to concentrate all of their efforts on economic expansion. The Chinese make the allegation that at this point they inherited territorial claims on Tibet from the Mongols they overthrew. However, at this time in history there is absolutely no proof that the Tibetans were under the influence of the Chinese. The Chinese made no attempt at this time to extend their influence over Tibet. There was communication between the Ming emperors and the Dalai Lamas. However, at this time both states were both recognized as being fully sovereign.
Tibet and the influence of the Manchu empire. (18th and 19th centuries)
In 1664 the Qing Dynasty was created when Manchu forces took the capital in Beijing. The 5th Dalai Lama wished to establish peaceful relations with the new power in China. Therefore he was invited to visit Beijing and established a peaceful relationship. The Manchus were able to gain influence in Tibet by exploiting differences between the rival groups in Tibet. The Manchus used the rivalry between the Panchen Lama and the Dalai Lama especially. The Panchen Lama being directly under the Dalai Lama in religious power. This political influence on Tibet can be seen in 1728 when two political officials from Beijing were sent to Lhasa, the capital of Tibet, to represent the Chinese in the Tibetan government. They were called “ambans”, which means “imperial resident“. There is much argument over how much political power the officials actually had. The Chinese claim that they were on an "equal standing with the Dalai Lama and the Bainqen Erdeni (Panchen Lama)"(China White Paper, p.8). However this seems to conflict with the instructions they were given under the Qianlong emperor. His instructions to them were "not to interfere in the internal policies of Tibet and to refrain from exploitation" (Tibet: A Political History, p.148). The Tibetan region of Amdo was placed under military control because of an anti-Manchu uprising. However, this occupation of Tibet was not one by ethnic Chinese forces, similar to the Mongol control of Tibet. So therefore Chinese claims of suzerainty over Tiber are indefensible.
Tibet and the West: The Simla Convention (1914)
By then end of the 19th century both Britain and Russia were looking into Central Asia to expand their spheres of influence. Tibet came to be of great strategic importance to these two countries. After much trade missions and expeditions Britain came out having the advantage. So in 1914 they convened a conference at Simla to discuss the status of Tibet.
At the conference the Chinese delegates argued that Tibet's subjugation by the Mongols and Manchus proved that it was part of China. Therefore, they believed that the new Republic of China should govern Tibet. Negotiations were heated, however in the end the Chinese suzerainty over Tibet was agreed upon. It did guarantee complete control over internal affairs and the autonomy of Western Tibet. The Chinese delegate would only initial the agreement and therefore failed to put a full signature because he was under pressure from Beijing. As a result, Britain and Tibet agreed that they would follow the provisions of the agreement but that China would not get any of the privileges mentioned.
The Chinese now state that their failure to sign the document make it “null and void”, and that "the Simla Conference has gone down in the annals as an ignominious deed by British imperialism" (Highlights of Tibetan History, p.153). The legal status of the Simla agreement has yet to be decided upon. However it did show that Tibet was an independent nation which could enter into binding agreements with other countries.
The Communist Invasion of Tibet (1949-1959) and the 17-point agreement
In 1948 there were rumors on Chinese spies in Tibet, which were most likely there to determine their military strength. Soon after the Tibetan governor in the east reported that there were Chinese forces massing along Tibet’s eastern border. The national assembly convened and decided that Tibet was too weak to defend themselves and must surrender peacefully to preserve their people. Suddenly China invades eastern Tibet in 1950. Soon after two officials are received in Lhasa bearing a message from that governor in the east asking permission to begin peace negotiations with China. The message also said that the Chinese commander promised he would not invade any further. At this point the 14th Dalai Lama takes control of the government at only 16. The governor in the east and four other delegates are sent to Peking to begin the peace negotiations with China. However, while there they are forced to sign the 17-point agreement or else the Tibetan people would suffer military action. Soon after the agreement was signed a Chinese general moved into the capital, Lhasa, and the People’s Liberation Army took control of all of Tibet.
Chinese historians describe the invasion of Tibet by the Peoples Liberation Army as a peaceful liberation. The 17-point agreement was signed between the Chinese and Tibet in 1951, which guaranteed Tibetan autonomy. The Chinese also state that the agreement "enjoyed the approval and support of the people from every ethnic group in Tibet" (China White Paper, p.14). In reality Chinese suppression of traditional Tibetan practices drove hundred of Tibetans into the mountains and thousands more moved to Lhasa to escape persecution. By 1959 the Tibetans could take no more and an uprising occurred which was quickly crushed. The 14th Dalai Lama was subsequently forced to flee to India to avoid captivity. The Chinese treatments of the Tibetans after these events were brutal. Even the official Chinese records report the dead at 87,000 during the uprising and its aftermath. The Tibetan figures state that 430,000 were killed in the uprising and subsequent guerilla warfare.
Chinese treatment of Tibet from 1950 till present
The 17-point agreement guaranteed Tibetan autonomy and promised not to interfere with Tibet‘s existing form of government. However, the treaty was complete ignored by the Chinese in Eastern Tibet. And by 1959 the Chinese had reneged the treaty all together by taking over the government in Lhasa. Much of Eastern Tibet was incorporated into the Chinese provinces of Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, and Yunnan. Western Tibet was renamed the Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR). Although, there is no evidence to support that this region is autonomous. All the local legislation is subject to the approval of the central government in Beijing. Also, all local government must come from the regional party. In which no Tibetan can serve. The social treatment of Tibetans by the Chinese has been brutal. An Estimated 1.2 million Tibetans have died since 1950 as a result of the Chinese. An International Commission of Jurists concluded in 1960 that there was a prima facie case of Genocide committed by the Chinese upon Tibet. More recently the Chinese have been killing and/or torturing Tibetan dissidents. It is believed that more than 200 unarmed civilian protesters were shot between 1987 and 1989. There were also reports of detainees being executed as well. There are many detailed accounts of the Chinese torture of these dissidents in the Tibetan prisons. The Chinese maltreatment of the Tibetan people can be seen in their policies towards Tibetan education, religion, immigration, economy, and environment.
The Chinese also have attempted to extinguish any Tibetan national unity by influencing education. The Chinese made Chinese the official language of Tibet. Therefore, all secondary school age children are taught in Chinese. Many Tibetan children are sent to China to study for a period of seven years. The Chinese have been re-educating the children of Tibet about their cultural past as well. The use a distorted history curriculum which never mentions Tibetan independence. At school no discussion of Tibetan history or culture is allowed and the Chinese culture is promoted instead. Also, in order to receive a higher education at one of the universities one must know English. And in order to learn English in secondary school the student must forfeit studies of his native language.
The religious intolerance displayed by the Chinese in Tibet is immense. Until 1979 religion was forcibly suppressed in Tibet and upward of 6000 shrines and monasteries were destroyed. The constitution of the Peoples Republic of China provides for freedom of religious belief. However, China would restrict and regulate the amount of monks and nuns entering the monasteries. These restrictions also prevented children under 18 from joining the monasteries. These regulating bodies also prevented monks and nuns that have been in jail for pro-independence movement from rejoining their monasteries. In 1994 a new policy for the suppression of Tibetan Buddhism was adopted. There were many attempts at this time to discredit the religious authority of the Dalai Lama. Then in 1995 the Chinese rejected the child that the Dalai Lama chose as the reincarnation of the Panchen Lama and installed its own choice. The child and his family’s whereabouts are unknown.
Another attempt by the Chinese to assimilate Tibet into the People’s Republic is through immigration. Beijing follows a policy of encouraging Chinese citizens to settle in Tibet. This great influx had its obvious effects on the economy. The resettlement of the Chinese caused Tibetans to be the minority in many areas. Which caused unemployment among Tibetans. The Chinese claim that there were 79,000 non-Tibetans in the TAR. However, more realistic research by independent organizations places the figure closers to 270,000. For the whole of Tibet the Chinese outnumbered the Tibetans by approximately 1 million people.
The People’s Republic is willing to sacrifice anything in Tibet for an economic gain. Beijing expects to see a 10% economic growth from Tibet. The Chinese confiscated the Tibetan agricultural lands and incorporated them into collectivized and communal farms. This forced modernization of the Tibetan agriculture caused the countries first recorded famine from 1960 till 1962. An estimated 340,000 Tibetans died in the famine. As a result of the communization of Tibetan agriculture the people became poorer than before. Even the Chinese admitted to this when Communist leader Hu Yaobang admitted that the country was poorer than it was in 1959. The average rural income was around 20 U.S. dollars per year (R. Barnett, lecture at Copenhagen Ecology Seminar, 1994). All the new wealth that Tibet is gaining is going directly into the Chinese hands. The Tibetan people are seeing little or none of it. This can be shown by the announcement by the Chinese that a Tibetan railway will be built. This railway will speed up the immigration of more Chinese and the exportation of Tibetan mineral resources. The TAR economic planning committee stated that in the 1990’s the main goal would be to exploit the mineral reserves of Tibet. Mining and mineral extraction have become the largest economic activity in Tibet. In order to boost the economy Chinese traders are given lower tax assessments. Also, Chinese government officials are paid bonuses for working in Tibet.
Chinese destruction of the Tibetan government is unbelievable. Extensive deforestation has occurred in Tibet. Results vary however there is a general consensus that around one half of Tibet’s natural forest has been lost since Chinese occupation. Much of the deforestation comes as a result of an extensive road building program initiated by the Chinese. It has been reported that as many as 60 truckloads of timber leave Tibet every hour. This is in direct conflict with U.N. resolution XVII, which established the people right of sovereignty over their natural resources. The Indian government also reports that there are three nuclear missile sites and about 300,000 troops stationed in the Tibetan Autonomous Region. Throughout the 60s and 70s the Chinese operated a nuclear research facility in Tibet. The Chinese have also admitted to using 20 square mile area near Lake Kokunor, the largest lake in Tibet, to dump nuclear waste.
Conclusion
Chinese claims of suzerainty over Tibet are completely unjustified and false. Upon the examination of the relationship between Tibet and China throughout history it can be seen that at no point did Tibet become an integral part of China. However, there were some incidents that showed the close ties between the countries. Such as the marriage alliance that occurred in the 7th and 8th centuries after a Tibetan king married a Chinese princess. Also, the relationship between the Manchu emperors and the first Dalai Lamas shows that the two countries recognized each other’s sovereignty and were willing to be in a peaceful relationship. The Chinese historians’ main argument for Chinese suzerainty over Tibet is that it became an integral part of China while they were under Mongol control. The fact that Tibet and China both fell under the political control of the Mongols far from indicates their unification. If this were true then why does Beijing not lay claim on Northern Burma, North Vietnam, Korea, and a large area of Siberia? All of these are countries that fell to the Mongol Empire at the same time as the Chinese. Also, when investigating the events that have occurred in Tibet since Chinese occupation one can assume that the Chinese are only interested in using Tibet for an economic means and for increased living space for their overcrowded country. The atrocities that have occurred in Tibet are countless. Over 1.2 million Tibetan people have been killed by the Chinese in uprisings and as political prisoners. The International Commission of Jurists has even concluded that there is a prima facie case of genocide committed by the Chinese on the Tibetan people. So even if the Chinese actually are justified in claiming suzerainty over Tibet, they are not fit to be governing this country, based upon their actions.
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