What is Psychology?
Will there ever be a true definition of psychology? Is there a definition that all psychologists would agree to today? As the author, I have set out to provide information on my own perception of what psychology is, and also to include expressions of general agreement as to how psychology is typically viewed at present. I then intend to introduce different sub-divisions of psychology, taking a look at the different methods that psychologists use in order to perform in their specialist areas.
So returning to the title: What is psychology? If we were to look for an official definition of psychology, we could produce answers such as "the science or the study of the mind", or "the science of behaviour". This definition is also the physical translation of the word psychology. "Psycho" meaning mind, and "logy" or "logos" meaning knowledge or study.
Although most psychologists agree upon the importance of being scientific, it is not always clear what this means exactly, nor is it possible for the study of the mind to be 100% scientific. It is almost impossible to study the "mind" directly. Some psychologists have avoided this altogether, especially the Behaviourists, like B.F. Skinner (Skinner, B.F. 1938).
What this means in practise, then, is that most psychologists tend to concentrate on the observable and measurable in the behaviour of an individual, including also biological processes within the body. This, in turn, leads us to a commonly accepted "working" definition as: "Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and experience of humans and animals".
From a personal perspective, it is imperative to expand upon this definition. If we observe the route of psychology over the past centuries, we see evidence that psychology is a subject that has been viewed from many angles. Early accounts of Hippocrates suggesting a relationship between characteristics and body types in 400 BC, to the psychologists of the last century, including B.F. Skinner(1938) in his book "The behaviour of Organisms", and Carl Rogers on "Client centred Therapy"(Rogers,1951). The notable change in attitude and definition of psychology leads this author to believe that psychology grows with evolution and continues to redefine itself. Therefore, my personal definition of psychology, would, at present be: Psychology is a science and also a practise concerned with both human and animal behaviour as well as the mental processes which influence physical and mental health.
With this in mind, we move on to the work of psychologists. Naturally, as psychology developed, so also did many different schools of thought emerge. Although many "schools" developed as a revolt against the more traditional methods or beliefs of their time, they did not necessarily replace the "schools" that went before them, rather, they tended to exist alongside each other. Modern psychology no longer exists of schools; rather, it has been influenced by all of the different ideas to provide us with today's contemporary mindset towards psychology.
Today, the different areas of study for a ...
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With this in mind, we move on to the work of psychologists. Naturally, as psychology developed, so also did many different schools of thought emerge. Although many "schools" developed as a revolt against the more traditional methods or beliefs of their time, they did not necessarily replace the "schools" that went before them, rather, they tended to exist alongside each other. Modern psychology no longer exists of schools; rather, it has been influenced by all of the different ideas to provide us with today's contemporary mindset towards psychology.
Today, the different areas of study for a psychologist are manifold. So having studied psychology, what does a psychologist do?
Firstly, many psychologists work in the area of research. This may vary throughout many different branches of psychology. A cognitive psychologist will be interested in research in the area of perception, problem solving and memory, for example Baddeley and Hitch (1974) with working memory. A physiological psychologist, on the other hand, will try to explain behaviour in both the physiological structure of humans and animals. Faraday (1973) looked at the physiological changes that happen to people while sleeping and dreaming.
In addition to the many areas of research, there are a plethora of areas in which psychologists can work. Some of them may include the following:
Educational psychologists. They provide help for the different academic or emotional needs that a child may have at school, college, in a nursery, at home, or elsewhere.
Clinical psychology is the study of mental disorders and problems of adjustment (Lindsay and Powell, 1994). This is the largest sub-field in psychology that assesses people in groups or as individuals. Clinical psychologists often work in a team with medical doctors or psychiatrists.
An industrial psychologist, also known as an occupational psychologist, is employed by an organisation or works in the public services. Occupational psychology is the study of the ways in which individuals and groups perform and behave in the workplace (Buchanan and Huczynski, 1997)
Sports psychology is an emerging field in the area of applied psychology. It observes how mood and cognition effect how people perform in sports activities. Exercise psychology applies psychological principles to the applied setting of sport (Steinberg et al., 1998)
A counselling psychologist sets out to improve the well being of an individual. Counselling psychology also involves work with groups, couples and families. These psychologists aim at helping people to help themselves.
Forensic or criminal psychology applies psychological knowledge to the understanding, prediction and nature of crime and behaviour related to crime (Davies, 1995). This area has become more and more important in the matter of eyewitness testimony. In the area of forensic psychology, psychologists have recently helped to illustrate how highly unreliable this type of evidence is. In criminology, the psychologist conducts therapeutic work with people who have come into conflict with the law.
Developmental psychologists study how humans develop, from childhood, adolescence and into adulthood. According to Berk, (1997), it is "the study of physical, cognitive, emotional and social development, especially of children.
This selection of the different work of psychologists shows us how varied the job of a psychologist can be. However, not only is the type of work carried out by a psychologist varied, but also the methods used by psychologists in their work. Below, I have outlined five major approaches used in psychology. These are approaches that have developed from earlier schools of thought such as Structuralism, inspired by Wilhelm Wundt (1879), Functionalism, from the work and ideas of Charles Darwin(1859), and also Gestalt, the study of "whole" behaviour-perception with the works of Wertheimer(1972), Kofka(1935). There will be a certain amount of overlap, and rather than being competitive, these views should be regarded as complementary in the understanding of how psychology works.
The five main approaches and methods used in psychology are: physiological, psychodynamics, behaviourist, cognitive, and humanistic. Throughout these approaches, the methods of introspection, experimentation, observation and also case studies, have been the key techniques used to achieve results.
As physiology may imply, a psychologist using this method will be interested in biology and its link as to how we function psychologically. Paul Broca(1861) was an early physiologist who produced evidence that behaviour had a physical base. Today physiologists continue to research the biological basis of behaviour through the studies of the nervous system, especially the brain.
Psychodynamics was born through the psychoanalytic theories of Freud(1921). It means observing our own past experiences and motivation and the part they play in developing our personality and behaviour. The post-Freudians, such as Anna Freud (1958) and, offering psychodynamic theories have also played a hugely important role in how we understand peoples' personalities.
The behaviourist approach is also known as learning theory. We find this rooted in the work of associationists such as Pavlov(1927) , and also early behaviourists such as Watson(1913). Behaviourists see the development of personality and behaviour being formed through what we experience and learn within the environment. The work of Skinner is of key importance in behaviourism; he produced a theory of operant conditioning while working with rats. This theory could also apply to humans.
Cognitive psychologists on the other hand, believe that what occurs within a person is a vital element to be studied if a person's behaviour is to be understood properly. Cognitive psychologists study issues such as perception, language, thinking and memory. As cognitive psychology observes intellectual development, this is a process that is not always observable. Hebb(1949) proposed that to study information processing by the nervous system, we do not need exact knowledge of the brain and its functions. He suggested using models of how the nervous system might operate, which would be replaced upon receipt of new findings.
However, Jean Piaget (1952) is probably the psychologist who has made the greatest impact on the study of cognitive development.
Humanistic psychologists are concerned with phenomenology. This is the subjective and conscious experience of a person. Two key figures to this approach are Carl Rogers(1951) and Abraham Maslow(1970). Rogers's theory promotes the importance of the self-concept. Individuals are regarded as being unique, essentially good, with a basic need for unconditional positive regard. Maslow was fascinated by peoples' different motives, and became aware of the fact that they fell into a pattern that could be compared to a hierarchy. Today, Maslow's "hierarchy of needs" has become synonymous with his name.
Regarding the above studies , work, methods and approaches of psychologists, I wish to now revert to the definition of psychology given at the start of this essay and to reiterate the opinion that psychology is a developing practise and science which continues to redefine itself with the evolution of the field.
References:
Skinner, B.F. (1938). The Behaviour of Organisms. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Rogers, C.R. (1951) Client Centred Therapy. London: Constable.
Baddeley, A.D. and Hitch, G. (1974) Working Memory. In G.H. Bower (ed.), psychology of learning and motivation, vol.8. London: Academic Press.
Faraday, A. (1973). Dream Power. London: Pan.
Wundt, W. (1879) An introduction to psychology (trans. R. Pinter). London: George Allen
Wertheimer M. (1972) Fundamental issues in psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Koffa, K. (1935). Principles of Gestalt psychology. New York
Freud, S. (1921). Group psychology and the analysis of the ego. In J. Strachey (ed.), Standard Edition of the Complete psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, vol. 19. London: Hogarth Press.
Freud, A. (1958) Asolescence. In R.S. Eisler, A. Freud, H. Hartmann and M. Kris (eds), Psychoanalytic study of the child, 6, 127-68
Pavlov, I (1927). Conditioned Reflexes (trans. G.V. Anrep). London: Oxford University Press.
Watson, J.B. 91913). Psychology as a behaviourist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158-77
Hebb, D.O. (1949) The Organisation of Behaviour. New York: Wiley
Piaget, J (1952) Origins of intelligence in children (trans. M. Cook) New York: International Universities Press
Rogers, C.R. (1951) Client Centred Therapy. London: Constable
Maslow, A (1970) Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Row.
