Furthermore, Protestants also accept that the need and desire for an heir can lead to a third party being involved, as shown in Genesis when Rachel invites Joseph to take her slave Bilah, and as a result of this they allow AID, although there are regulations for this such as that donors must not sell their sperm or father more than ten children. The child must also have access to information about the donor when they reach 18 years of age.
However, Protestants do not allow surrogacy as they believe that “it violates the dignity of motherhood that a woman should be paid for bearing a child” and believe that the surrogate mother may be unwilling to give the baby up because she may have bonded with the child.
Muslims believe that a married couple with children is the ideal because of their beliefs in the family unit, such as children being a gift from God upon which Muslims will be judged by God at the end of the world. Islam also teaches that Muslim parents are the ones who produce the next generation through sex within marriage, which is encouraged so that children can be brought into the world, and teach children in the society what is right, as recognized in the Hadith.
As a result, Muslims accept in-vitro fertilization and AIH because they recognize that infertile couples may need medical help to have children. However, Islam prohibits AID because Muslims feel that AID can be considered adultery, which is forbidden because of teachings such as Surah 17 and Surah 24. This is due to the fact that a third party is involved in the process of the creation of life.
Surrogacy is also forbidden because of this and the Islamic view on motherhood which is that mothers deserve the most respect and care, as seen in the Hadith. In addition, polygamy removes the need for surrogacy in Islam as polygamy is allowed by the Qur’an.
Explain why religious people may have a problem with transplant surgery.
There are several reasons why religious people may have a problem with organ transplant surgery. These reasons revolve mostly around the religious beliefs in the sanctity of life and life as the creation of and a gift from God.
Christianity teaches that life is created by God and therefore essentially belongs to God. Christians therefore believe that humans do not have the right to do what they want with human life and to take it away. This is supported by teachings such as that in Exodus which forbids killing. Due to these teachings, Christians may have a problem with transplant surgery because most organ transplants require the organs to be kept alive with blood and oxygen flowing through them until they are removed from the body, at which point life is terminated.
In addition to this, Christians believe that because life is a gift from God, it is sacred and therefore to be treated as holy and valued and preserved. As a result, Christianity teaches that the body is a temple and that as stewards of God’s creation, we should treat our bodies with respect, refraining from whatever is harmful to them. In support of this perspective is the teaching in 1 Corinthians and because of this, Christians may believe that organ transplants are impermissible because they harm the body of the donor and do not preserve it. Furthermore, organ transplants often exploit the poor because rich people will pay for their organs, and Christians are against this because of catechisms which teach that the rich should not exploit the poor.
Islam, like Christianity, teaches that life comes from God, belongs to God and is sacred; Muslims believe that we have been trusted by God with our bodies, as seen in the Qur’an. It is therefore wrong to sell, give or donate any organs from our bodies which are essentially God’s because the organs of a human body are sacred and so should not be tampered with, meaning that to take benefit from any part of a human is unlawful (haram). Muslims believe this because of teachings in the Hadith and of the Imam Nawawi who explained this particular Hadith.
Some religions accept organ transplants if no life is terminated intentionally, however, in Islam, a human body is sacred even after death and organ transplants even after death, according to teachings such as that in the Hadith, are therefore against the Muslim beliefs. Furthermore, it is haram in Islam for an individual to inflict harm upon himself or others, as taught by Ibn Najaym al-Ashbah. This means that it would be unlawful for a person to donate a part of their body because it would be harmful to themselves and because of this, the mutilation and deformation of a body, muthla, (what organ transplant is sometimes seen as,) is forbidden in the Shariah, supported by the Hadith.
For the above reasons, religious people may have a problem with organ transplant surgery.
‘Only God has the right to interfere with our genes.’ Do you agree? Give reasons for your opinion showing you have considered another point of view.
It is obvious that only God should have the right to interfere with our genes, effectively making genetic engineering, wrong.
Genetic engineering is generally classified into two types: genetic engineering for therapeutic means and cloning, which is non-therapeutic. Genetic engineering for therapeutic means can be defined as the deliberate modification of the characteristics of an organism by the manipulation of genetic material, namely deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). This technique developed when enzymes, which increase the rates of chemical reactions, that could cut and join strands of DNA were discovered. Using these enzymes, scientists found that they could modify DNA and build customized DNA. Cloning on the other hand, is transferring genes, or DNA from one organism to another and then replicating these genes by genetic engineering techniques to produce multiple identical copies of an organism, for example, a person.
Some say that genetic engineering is acceptable, and there are both religious and non-religious reasons for this view. Non-religious supporters of genetic engineering have said, despite the many ethical concerns surrounding genetic engineering that it offers the possibility of cures for currently incurable genetic diseases, meaning it would benefit human health. In addition, genetic research is a critical part of medical research and will undoubtedly involve some genetic engineering for the benefit of medical research.
From a Christian point of view, genetic engineering may also be acceptable to some because of the teaching of Luke that shows Christians they should do all they can to cure. They also believe that using the discoveries of the genetic make-up of people is what God would want humans to do as stewards of his creation – they believe that research into genetic engineering is no different from research into drugs as they both can be used to improve human life. However, because of their beliefs in the sanctity of life, Roman Catholics do not allow the use of embryos because they believe in life at the moment of conception and the teaching in Exodus, whereas liberal Protestants allow the use of embryos up to 14 days old to be used for genetic research because they believe that life does not begin at conception.
Similarly, some Muslims support genetic engineering because the Qur’an teaches that it is a good thing so long as it is to cure and because they also believe that using the discoveries of the genetic make-up of humans is part of what God wants. Due to the Muslim beliefs in the sanctity of life, the use of embryos older than 14 days is not permitted, as at that point, they are regarded as potential human life.
Therefore, because of assumptions about what God would want humans to do with the discoveries of the genetic make-up of humans and because of the possibility but not certainty that genetic research and engineering and research could cure currently incurable diseases, some believe that genetic engineering is the way to go.
However, those who are against genetic engineering, whether religious or non-religious, seem to have considered more closely the alternative consequences to genetic engineering. Non-religious people may be against genetic engineering because of how little information we have about the long-term consequences of the procedures and treatments. The effects of genetic engineering procedures are also irreversible and the consequences are yet unknown, meaning that in the short-term, if anything went wrong, it would be permanent. This could cause the patient immense distress, possibly traumatizing them. An example of this would be a mutation which caused the patient to be significantly different from other people (e.g. one arm less) and thus cause the patient difficulties in everyday tasks. Moreover, changing the genetic make-up of any organism may affect ecosystems in ways that laboratory testing cannot predict, meaning that the ecosystems may be affected for the worse. An example of this could be if an organism’s genetic make-up is made better, there may gradually be less and less of the food it consumes, and the species of food may become extinct.
In addition, the power to genetically modify places control with scientists who could use genetic engineering methods to produce scientifically human beings – clones, which would question our current take on human rights, because a clone would be exactly the same as the person their DNA was taken from. The idea of evolution and how our DNA slowly changes to adapt to our environment is also a factor for those who are non-religious, as with genetic modification processes, we are speeding up the process of natural genetic change significantly and this could cause problems in the future if the genes of genetically modified organisms are spread to natural organisms, contaminating the genes of natural organisms. This could be a problem as it could affect future generations in negative unforeseeable and uncontrollable ways. Furthermore, genetic engineering offers the chance for discrimination or prejudice because we would be able to see who was genetically to our advantage or disadvantage.
Some Christians are opposed to genetic research and engineering because they believe that God has created the genetic make-up of each human being especially and at the moment of conception. This is due to teachings such as that in Jeremiah. These Christians also believe that people have no right to interfere with God’s will and that doing so is ‘playing God’ because of their beliefs in the sanctity of life, which tell them that our lives are essentially God’s because of teachings in the Bible.
Some Muslims are also opposed to genetic research and engineering because they too believe that the genetic make-up of each individual is established by God. They believe that only God can alter that make-up and that scientists who try to create life are ‘playing God’, which is unforgiveable because they believe that only God has the right to grant life, as taught in the Surah.
For the above reasons, such as that of the sanctity of life and the many teachings on matters of life and death in relation to God, people may believe that genetic research and engineering are wrong, and it is because of this, that it can be concluded that yes, only God has the right to interfere with our genes.
Bibliography
Books
Jenkins, Joe, Contemporary Moral Issues, Heinemann, 2002
Jenkins, Joe, Examining Religions Christianity, Heinemann, 1995
Parsons, Richard, GCSE Double Science: Biology, Coordination Group Publications, 2002
Rankin, John, Ethics and Religions, Longman, 1994
Watton, Victor, Religion and Society, Edexcel, 2001
Websites
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Rankin, John, Ethics and Religions, Longman, 1994, page 58
Jenkins, Joe, Contemporary Moral Issues, Heinemann, 2002, page 94
Jenkins, Joe, Contemporary Moral Issues, Heinemann, 2002, page 94
Rankin, John, Ethics and Religions, Longman, 1994, page 57
Jenkins, Joe, Contemporary Moral Issues, Heinemann, 2002, page 94
Jenkins, Joe, Contemporary Moral Issues, Heinemann, 2002, page 93
Exodus 20:13, You shall not murder.
Genesis 38:9-10, He spilled his semen on the ground…What he did was wicked in the LORD’s sight; so he put him to death also.
Jeremiah 1:5, Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, before you were born I set you apart.
Exodus 20:13, You shall not murder.
Genesis 1:26, Then God said, “Let Us make man in Our image, according to Our likeness”
Church of England, Report on Human Fertilization and Embryology, 1984
Genesis 1:28 God said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply…”
Genesis 30:3, She said, “Here is my maid Bilah, go in to her that she may bear on my knees, that through her I [Rachel] too may have children.”
Jenkins, Joe, Contemporary Moral Issues, Heinemann, 2002, page 95
Hadith, No father can give his child anything better than good manners.
Surah 17:32, Nor come nigh to adultery for it is a shameful deed and an evil opening the road to other evils.
Surah 24:2, The woman and the man guilty of adultery and fornication, flog each of them with a hundred stripes: let not compassion move you in their case, in a matter prescribed by God.
Hadith, A man came to the Prophet Muhammad and said, “O Messenger of God! Who among the people is the most worthy of my good companionship?” The Prophet said “Your mother.” The man said, “Then who?” The Prophet said “Then your mother.” The man further asked, “Then who?” The Prophet said “Then your mother.” The man asked again, “Then who?” The Prophet said “Then your father.”
Surah 4:3, And if you fear that you cannot act equitably towards orphans, marry such women as seem good to you, two and three and four
Exodus 20:13, You shall not murder.
1 Corinthians 6:19, Do you not know that your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit, who is in you, whom you have received from God? You are not your own. For you have been bought with a price: therefore glorify God in your body.
Catechism of the Catholic Church, Rich nations have a grave moral responsibility towards those which are unable to ensure the means of their development by themselves.
Surah Al-Israa 17:70, And indeed We have honoured the Children of Adam.
Hadith as quoted by Sayyida Asma bint Abi Bakr, Allah’s curse is on a woman who wears false hair (of humans) or arranges it for others.
Imam Nawawi, If human hair is used, then it is unlawful by consensus, whether it’s the hair of a man or woman, because of the general narrations that prohibit this. And also, it is unlawful to take benefit from the hair and all other organs of a human body due to its sanctity. The hair of a human along with all his body parts must be buried.
Hadith, Breaking the bone of a dead person is similar (in sin) to breaking the bone of a living person.
Ibn Najaym al-Ashbah, Harm cannot be removed by a similar harm.
Hadith, Abstain from Muthla.
Watton, Victor, Religion and Society, Edexcel, 2001, page 100
Luke 10:8-9, When you enter a town and are welcomed, eat what is set before you. Heal the sick who are there and tell them, ‘The kingdom of God is near you.’
Exodus 20:13, You shall not murder.
Parsons, Richard, GCSE Double Science: Biology, Coordination Group Publications, 2002, page 76
Jeremiah 1:5, Before I formed you in the womb, I knew you; before you were born, I set you apart.
1 Corinthians 6:19, You are not your own.
Surah 45:26, It is Allah who gives you life, then gives you death.
