Newman maintains that the conscience is God informing the individual as to how they should behave and thus, in a sense, ‘tells us about the nature of God’s existence.’ Martin Luther also believes that wisdom is revealed through the word of God. St. Thomas Aquinas offers an alternative view, asserting that in ‘the mind of man making moral judgements’ wisdom is revealed in nature. Such forms the basis of the ethical theory Natural Law. However, Aquinas reflects Augustine’s idea of an epistemological handicap, holding that something is good if it fits its purpose, but sin taints our view, making goodness harder to establish. Consequently we need written law to clarify what’s righteous. Karl Barth also recognises the dependence of conscience on the scriptures. However, this emphasis on the Bible fails to acknowledge that interpretation of scripture is undoubtedly subjective. It is generally agreed that good teaching is also essential, as illustrated by Paul’s letter to the Corinthians, which castes him into a teaching role. Nevertheless, Martin Luther highlights the dangers of ungodly churches misleading their congregations, resulting in despair amongst ordinary consciences.
It should be noted that in the Gospels the conscience is not mentioned specifically. However, it seems to be represented by the heart, which is referred to frequently:
‘God blesses those whose hearts are pure, for they will see God.’ (Matthew 5:8)
Paul begins to make the distinction between the heart and the conscience, a division most clearly seen in his first letter to the Corinthians. Paul claims that the conscience becomes more than an awareness of transgression; it becomes a judgement on actions performed or about to be performed.
The ideas of Joseph Butler have greatly influenced Cardinal Newman, who places much emphasis on the individual’s relationship with God and the personal nature of conscience. However, he acknowledges the fact that individual consciences share a common core of values. Butler maintains that it is our capacity to contemplate upon the righteousness of our actions which is god-given, a gift of which we must make use in order to live a good life. According to Butler, conscience has supreme claim to authority. In light of this, it should be given priority over our own desires.
In a sense, the Islamic view of conscience has much in common with that of Christianity, for Muslims believe that the Koran is the final revelation of Allah and hence, is the key to understanding how to live life in accordance with His wishes. In the non – theistic religion of Buddhism, however, the concept of conscience is irrelevant.
The psychologist Sigmund Freud, amongst others, condemns the theistic view of conscience. Central to Freud’s theory are the three levels of psyche: the id (the basic driving instinct); the ego (the reality perspective that regulates the id), and the superego (aids the ego and suppresses anti-social behaviour). Freud holds that the superego functions as the conscience. However, Glaser highlights the fact that Freud’s theory fails to account for the evolutionary nature of conscience; it develops with experience. We must also question what happens when people rise above authority. Freud maintains that our sense of morality derives from our superego, which is shaped by authority, but doesn’t address this point. Nevertheless, Fromm supports Freud, holding that people are trapped by the ‘internalised echo’ of authority.
As for the origins of conscience, this remains unclear. If we are to accept that the conscience is the voice of God, we must then question as to why ideas of morality are relative, varying from one society to another. It may be that it is necessary for the individual to have faith in God for his conscience to be developed. Indeed, this would account for the apparent lack of conscience of serial killers, for example.
Michel Despland, writing in Mircea Eliade’s Encyclopedia of Religion