Reformation in Europe

Impact of Renaissance

Renaissance means “rebirth” and was a movement, which began in Italy, and was essentially a revival of learning and art. Learning became the property of the layperson not just the theologian and the cleric. The cultural Renaissance was a necessary preliminary for a Reformation because it was a time that raised the level of education, contributed to thought and learning and provided the means by which the Papacy and the organisation of the Catholic Church could be challenged and provided Reformers with the tools they could use. The invention of the printing press provided a powerful instrument for the spread of learning and Reformation ideas. Renaissance Popes were notoriously worldly and political change within Europe was constantly threatening the all-embracing power of the Papacy and the Catholic Church. The monarchies in France, England and later Spain were developing a dynastic strength and unity, a development which would surely undermine and indeed challenge the Papal power and control of the Catholic Church.

With this background of Renaissance enlightenment and indeed economic change, the climate was right for a Reformation movement led by Martin Luther, 1520, a German monk, a movement through which he set out originally to correct a flawed faith but which due to economic, political and social entanglement was to become the launching pad for a revolution in the Christian Church.

Political Climate

In terms of political conditions at the time, Germany, in particular, was ripe for Reformation. Economic, social and political conditions combined with the state of religion in Germany, made it the launching pad for revolution in the Church. The Princes in control in Germany were engaged in consolidating their power internally and protecting it from outside. In Germany, the Church had failed to bring peace and comfort to a people troubled by economic, social and political unrest. The people in Germany resented the Church and while the high places in the German Church were exclusively controlled by the aristocracy, the usual abuses recognised all over Europe at this time seemed to be more rampant and indeed had more influence over even political issues. In Germany, the weakness of the Emperor meant that the Pope’s interference went practically unopposed. However, the clergy’s dereliction of duty and the failure of the Church in its spiritual work were greater than elsewhere. The German Princes used this resentment of the Church, by the people, to their advantage. They were prepared to use anything to undermine the authority of the Emperor. They might support the Reformation if they could be sure that it would not challenge their political authority. In this way they would be able to gain control of the Church and thus reduce imperial authority, while at the same time enriching themselves with the lands of the Church. So with a formidable political agenda, the many Princes in Germany supported Martin Luther in the Reformation. The Pope feared the combined power of the German princes and this is one of the main reasons why Martin Luther was not physically dealt with, even though it was within the realm of the Pope’s power. Elimination of Luther by the Pope could have brought the political force of the German Princes upon him and he may not have been able to combat that force. The general political change in Europe also impacted on what was happening in Germany. Dynasties throughout Europe were consolidating power and independence and while Reformation spread throughout Europe between 1520 and 1570 its deep-seated roots stemmed from within Germany under the leadership of Martin Luther, whose motives were not politically influenced, but whose movement became an integral part of a political agenda.

Social and Economic Climate

While a strong political agenda fired the shift towards Reformation, social and economic conditions have to be discussed as a backdrop to Reformation. After an improvement in the prosperity of the peasantry in the 15th century they found themselves under attack. Growing numbers and rise in prices led to attempts by landlords to increase their incomes by raising rents. Wages were lowered and the enforcement of labour dues made life more difficult for them. People in Germany suffered more as there was no national authority to offer protection. Social unrest within Germany was prevalent, preparing the way for Reformation. The Ecclesiastical landlord was hated and the exactions of the Church were particularly resented. The peasantry saw Luther and the Lutheran movement as their saviour. The Church became the object of their resentment. The people, to vent their anger, used the widespread corruption and abuses in the Church. The Pope was seen as being only concerned with the expansion of the temporal power of the papacy. The spreading corruption and the abuses of simony, nepotism, plurality, non-residence, immorality and neglect of duty were widespread throughout 16th century Europe. Religion had become mechanistic and materialistic. Power, wealth and ignorant clergy had impacted greatly on the general population throughout Europe and indeed more so in Germany. The duty of the Church to provide, “solace, spiritual comfort, guidance and duty of care” had been completely decimated by clergy who were not showing any good example of morality, humility, self discipline or holiness, to people, who, in a time of political, social and economic change and challenge needed direction and consideration. The Renaissance period of enlightenment provided the opportunity for Humanists to reject “monastic virtues of renunciation and ascetic living” and also to challenge scholastic methods of interpretation of the Bible text and so to challenge the ancient authority of the Church. Thus the Reformation gained support based on the social and economic conditions of the time with Germany and Luther leading the way.

Having examined the early calls for reform in the Church and the changing society of the 16th century in terms of cultural, social and political issues, Chadwick writes “Widespread popular and unsatisfied demands for reform are usually, in the end, revolutionary. The demand grew by feeding on itself.” This cry for Reformation, “growing as a wind whips up the waves”, is a very appropriate description of how Reformation became the main event in terms of religious matters in the 16th century and certainly the reasons for reform are both many and complex. What made the call for Reformation more powerful in the 16th century and more revolutionary than in the previous one hundred years? Were the abuses in the Church worse, had the rot set in throughout the body of the Church? In fact the abuses were the same, simony, nepotism, sale of indulgences, absenteeism, pluralism, all still prevalent, but what was new was the new awareness of the already existing faults in the Church and the possibility of a solution. The new learning and thinking of the Renaissance period prepared the way for the challenge heralded by Martin Luther in the 16th century, a man who meant only to make corrections in the flawed faith but who is considered as the man who began a revolution in the Christian Church.

Erasmus and Christian Humanism

The influence of humanists as a short-term cause of the Reformation cannot be ignored. The humanists were scholars who studied the writings of ancient Greece and Rome as well as the Bible. Their aim was to “discover the meaning that the author had initially intended rather than accepting interpretations that had been made in the Middle Ages based on incomplete texts and poor translations.” Humanists were unwilling to accept established teachings and explanations; they demanded to be shown evidence. This approach was unwelcome in the Church where “the normal requirement was unquestioning obedience.” During the period of Renaissance, Humanism had become more important, as this was the age of enlightenment, challenge and new thinking and the Church and its established authority was certainly a target for the more highly educated and scholarly climate of the 1500’s. However, not all prominent Churchmen were hostile to the Humanists demand for evidence. It could be argued, “that by looking at the evidence afresh one might be able to come to a clearer understanding of God and his will.” So the Humanists “were allowed to continue their researches unmolested as long as they did nothing to challenge the existing power structure within the church.” However, the Humanists and in particular, Erasmus, did much to “create an intellectual climate in which the teachings of Luther were likely to be acceptable.” 

Desiderius Erasmus, a renowned theologian proposed and practised scholarly and devout use of the bible. He produced many literary works such as Adges published in 1500, read and quoted by many of the most educated people of the 16th century, including Luther. From his home in the Netherlands he built up a network of correspondents in many countries. His publications were written in Latin, the language of scholars and were circulated and found throughout many centres of learning throughout Europe. His reputation as “a thinker and researcher was unsurpassed” and one of his greatest contributions, published in 1516, was an accurate version of the New Testament in Greek.  Erasmus highlighted the abuses in the Church; he despised ignorance, promoted education and superstition. He claimed, “Scripture is the prime authority in religion” and believed it should be open for all to read. Green claims that Erasmus was “The foster father of the Reformation.”Erasmus launched attacks on what he saw as “the godlessness of many of the higher clergy” and he satirically ridiculed them in his book “In Praise of Folly” which became one of the most popular publications of the time. The influence of Erasmus on people like Martin Luther was immeasurable and while humanism was not identical to the Reformation and did not lead directly to it, it did much to prepare the way. Erasmus and Luther were accused of spreading the same doctrine by Pope Leo X’s envoy but it was also claimed “Erasmus’ poison was the more deadly.” In effect Erasmus became Luther’s guide and mentor until 1521. Luther considered him as a “fellow fighter in the same cause.”

Martin Luther, in his writings and publications became labelled as a heretic by the church and in an attempt to stop him he was called to the Diet of Worms in 1521. The Diet was led by the Emperor Charles V, at the request of the Pope, so that Luther would be seen to have been given a fair hearing. The outcome of the Diet was that Luther was confirmed a heretic, because he refused to accept the teachings and authority of the Church, Luther and his followers were made outcasts and all his writings were to be burned. In effect the Church had excommunicated Luther, but he was not arrested or detained which is what the Pope had wanted. Luther had become very popular in Germany, a local product, a national hero, based on his scathing attack and criticism of a Papacy and a Church that had become increasingly materialistic. Luther had hit out at the core of corruption in the church and at a time in society, particularly in Germany, which was truly ripe for reform. The expanding power of the German princes guaranteed his safety and so indeed as Erasmus said, Luther “had hatched a bird of a very different sort.” Luther, who had initially set out to make corrections in the flawed faith, had indeed started a revolution in the Christian Church. This was mainly due to the religious activities of the time being so closely entangled in the economic, social, cultural and political forces of the period.

Martin Luther and Reformation

The Reformation began in Germany on October 31st, 1517, when Martin Luther an Augustinian university professor at Wittenberg posted 95 Theses inviting debate over the legitimacy of the sale of indulgences. The Papacy viewed this as a gesture of rebellion and proceeded to take steps against Luther as a heretic. Martin Luther became the personification of reform that had deep roots in a society based on religion and papal control. Reform had been on the cards for many years previously and while Reformation means a change in religion in the 16th century it was closely entangled with cultural, economic, social and especially political issues at this time. Luther became the man who was to lead a desire for change and who was to represent a new era of religious change. This came as a result of an enlightenment period, namely new thought, learning and a new challenge. Reformation was particularly directed at the Catholic Church, which throughout many years had embroiled itself in all matters, social, economic and political. Martin Luther, a German monk, became the instrument of Reformation, although it is recognised by most historians that was not what he originally set out to do.  Martin Luther according to Randell “shook the foundations of the Catholic Church and threatened to shatter the Medieval concept of Christendom. He was not interested in acquiring power or riches, nor, even in establishing a public reputation for himself as an outstanding theologian. He was in no way a politician.” As a young monk, Luther struggled with the task of carrying out what he understood to be God’s instructions.  The harder he tried the more desperate he became because it seemed to be an impossible task.  His increasing study of the Bible provided him with a lifeline.  He became convinced that “the true revelation of God’s will,” lay within the Bible and “not in the teachings of the Church” It was this revelation that laid the foundation for his conflict with the Papacy.  “The only authority he would accept for a religious belief or practice was the Bible”

Luther questioned the whole structure of authority within the Church and he used his interpretation of the Bible to support his beliefs.  Within a short period of time, Luther became known as a theologian throughout Europe and many of his written pieces were circulated and read internationally.  His ideas, beliefs and criticisms of the Papacy were eagerly read throughout Germany, which in effect became the birthplace of a Reformation spearheaded by a man who was to “stimulate a social as well as religious revolution by his attacks on established authority”

The beginning of his campaign against the Catholic Church began with the publication of the 95 Theses, which he pinned to the main church door in Wittenberg, not an unusual or uncommon action in those days. His Theses questioned the materialistic and mechanistic workings of the church and in particular the sale of indulgences. Luther believed “that salvation was freely offered by God to everybody” all that was needed according to Randall was “complete trust in God.”  Luther believed that the church was misleading its people and he refused to sit back and do nothing about it. The actions of John Tetzel, a Dominican friar, particularly incensed Luther, as Tetzel was selling the most “powerful” indulgences ever offered, not only could the purchaser secure forgiveness for all his sins but could also secure the release from purgatory, the soul of a friend or relative who was already dead. He even used jingles in his sermons to promote the sale these indulgences, “As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs.” Luther’s 95 Theses hit a sensitive chord, particularly in Germany, at a time when political issues were to the fore. Martin Luther was criticised by many ecclesiastics in high positions and appeals were made to the Pope, at the time, Leo X, to silence him. Envoys from the Papacy were sent to persuade him to desist and to retract what he had written. Luther remained unmoved.   He would not compromise his beliefs and viewpoints for anyone.  He was not swayed by arguments that focused on the “consequences of his actions”.  Martin Luther had a conviction and a commitment unlike some of the early reformers and this is why we have to consider if a Reformation in the 16th century would ever have taken place or succeeded without him.  “ He did not mind whether he lived or died --------- he was impervious to the factors that influence most peoples’ actions, such as the desires to be happy, rich, famous loved, approved of, successful or merely to survive” Luther was instrumental in changing the course of modern European history because of the man he was.  Martin Luther was successful in leading the Reformation in the 16th century due to “the quality of his mind, the force of his personality and the intensity of his religious conviction”

Conclusion

The underlying causes of the Reformation in Europe in the 16th century are extremely complex and numerous. Having researched the early reform movement and previous challenges to the established authority of the Church, including men like John Wycliffe and John Huss, it is obvious that the demand for reform was clearly present in the early Middle Ages but never succeeded.  So why was the 16th century the time when Reformation succeeded in shaking the very foundation of the Church? The underlying causes of the Reformation were religious, economic, social, cultural and political in nature. They are closely intertwined with the influence of early humanists and particularly Erasmus, who created the intellectual foundation for a Reformation. Adding to this, the corrupt nature of the Popes of the era and the financial burdens put upon the people of this time, Europe was a melting pot that was ready to welcome change.

The personalities of reformers and in particular, Martin Luther, who spearheaded reform in Germany, cannot be underestimated.  As G.R Elton states “The Reformation was no more the work of one man than any such upheaval can ever be; but without Luther there would still have been no Reformation”. This statement can also be supported by Reardon who writes, “What was needed was a dynamism of a spiritual conviction ------ Luther it was who reached such a conviction and proclaimed it forthrightly and fearlessly” So whilst Luther was the dynamo needed to set the wheels of change in motion all the other influences of the 16th century cannot be disregarded as they are entwined and closely connected.  

Reformation in Europe in the 16th century began “as a pebble rolling downhill that caused an avalanche which led to the unravelling of the unity of Christendom” Reformation for a great majority of people was “an upheaval in the world as they knew it” – the seeds of which had been sown over a period of two hundred years and which came to fruition in the 16th century due to many varying causes and influences which I have outlined and explained throughout my examination of the topic and eventually ending with the person and conviction of Martin Luther who was in effect, the personification of Reformation in 16th century Europe.

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