Flat bones such as the ribs, sternum, scapula, and shoulder blades are thin, strong and protective. In adults, most red blood cells are formed in flat bones.
Irregular bones are bones such as the vertebrae, sphenoid and hyoid bones. They are bones which cannot be grouped as either long, short, flat or sesamoid bones. They serve many different purposes within the body.
Sesamoid bones are usually found at joints throughout the body, they are primarily there to help hold the tendons slightly further away from the joint, which increases the joints range of movement. An example of a sesamoid bone is the patella (kneecap).
HOW ARE BONES JOINED TOGETHER?
Most joints in the human body are covered by a ligament layer called a capsule. Inside this is a thin layer called a synovial membrane which makes a special fluid called synovial fluid. Synovial fluid reduces friction between joints and makes them slippery so that the bones can move easily.
The end of each bone is covered by protection cartilage which I stiff and rubbery. Bones are held in place by strong bands of ligaments (fibres which hold together bones at the joints while also allowing movement)
Joints fall into 3 different structural classifications, fibrous, cartilaginous or synovial joints.
Fibrous joint – joined by fibrous connective tissue
Cartilaginous joint – joined by cartilage
Synovial joint – most common form of joint, allows for a vast amount of movement.
Joints also fall into another 3 functional classifications, synarthroses, amphiarthroses or diarthroses joints.
Synarthroses joints, such as sutures, permit little of no movement and are mostly fibrous joints.
Amphiarthroses joints, such as facet joints (spinal), permit slight movement and are mostly cartilaginous joints.
Diarthroses joints, such as the elbow or hip joints, provide a variety of movements; they are the most common joint of the human body. All diarthroses joint are synovial joints.
There are 6 different types of synovial joints hinge, pivot, ball and socket, saddle, condyloid and gliding joints.
Hinge joints -
For example the elbow or knee
Flex and extend
Pivot joints -
For example the top of the neck (atlas and axis bones)
Rotation of one bone around another
Ball and Socket joints -
For example the shoulder or hip
Flex and extend, adduction and abduction, medial and lateral
Saddle joints -
For example joints in thumb
Flex and extend, adduction and abduction, circumduction
Condyloid joints -
For example the wrist
Flex and extend, adduction and abduction, circumduction
Gliding joints -
For example intercarpal joints
Gliding movements
WHAT ARE SOME OF THE MOST COMMON BREAKAGES, INJURIES OR DISEASES?
Bones are the human way of movement, support and protection. When outside forces apply pressure to the bones, they sometimes can’t handle that pressure; this is when fractures occur. Fractures, breakages and cracks are all the same thing; no one is worse then the other.
Broken bones hurt for many reasons for example irritated nerve endings, swelling and surrounding muscles going into spasm.
Fractures can occur because of direct impact, twisting or falls. All these factors influence what type of injury occurs. They can be either open or closed, open being if the skin over the break is disrupted and close being if the skin isn’t disrupted. A lot of the time open fractures need an anesthetic or surgery in order to fix the break.
Common sites for fractures include the wrist, ankle and hip. Hip fractures mostly occur in elderly people.
On average a broken bone takes 4-8 weeks to heal depending on other influential factors.
There are many different types of breaks as illustrated here.
Rib fractures are common injuries and are prone to breaking due to direct impact. Chest x-rays are usually taken to make certain that the lungs haven’t collapsed or bruised. If left untreated rib fractures can make a person susceptible to pneumonia due to difficulty breathing.
Skill fractures are also a common injury but they take a significant force to cause breakage. Skull x-rays are rarely taken to diagnose head injury usually the doctor will just feel around for a fracture or check the ears for blood behind the eardrum.
There are many different diseases of the bone but the most common are osteoporosis, Paget’s disease and arthritis.
Osteoporosis is a condition in which the bones become weak and break easier than an average persons would. It occurs when the bones start to loose the capacity to hold minerals.
Osteoporosis is most common in postmenopausal women. Most breakages of people with osteoporosis occur in the hip, spine and wrist.
Osteoporosis is a dangerous disease as it only shows symptoms after a breakage. Spine and hip breakages may cause chronic pain, long-term disability and even death.
Many factors increase the risk of developing osteoporosis such as, age, race, family history, previous fractures, anorexia, smoking, alcohol and low absorption of calcium and vitamin D.
Paget’s disease is a chronic skeletal disorder, which may result in enlarged or deformed bones.
Diagnosis is difficult as Paget’s disease is often confused with arthritis. There may be symptoms such as, bone pain, fractures, bowing of limbs, and hearing loss or headaches (if skull is affected).
Paget’s disease most commonly occurs in the spine, skull, pelvis and lower legs. Doctors are still unsure of the causes of Paget’s disease.
Arthritis is a group of conditions to do with damage to the joints of the body. Arthritis is the largest contributor to disability in people older than 55.
There are many different forms of arthritis, the most common being osteoarthritis. The word Osteoarthritis comes from the Greek words “osteo” meaning of the bone, “arthro” meaning joint and “itis” meaning inflammation.
Blood tests and x-rays are used to diagnose arthritis. Contrary to popular belief it doesn’t just occur in elderly people, it also affects younger people.
HOW ARE THESE CONDITIONS TREATED?
Broken bones are diagnosed with x-rays and occasionally CT and MRI scans. Broken bones heal by themselves but doctors need to make sure that the 2 pieces are lined up correctly. Depending on the break doctors may use, plaster casts, surgically inserted metal rods or plates, splints, braces, or traction
Plaster casts are used to provide both support and immobilisation, metal rods or plates are used to hold small bone pieces together, splints are used to discourage movement, braces are used to support the bone and traction is used to stretch the muscles surrounding the break.
Wrist fractures are generally put in a cast for 4-8 weeks, only on extreme occasions is surgery ever needed for a broken wrist.
Broken ankles are slightly more complex to fix. The doctor will usually realign the bones and put a splint on in the emergency room, the splint is only kept on for a couple of days. The reason for this is so that there is enough room in case of continued swelling. After a few days a cast will be put on.
Crutches are also a vital part of the treatment, depending on the injury they may be needed to get around for a few days or several months. Surgery is not uncommon, but it depends on the injury.
Hip fractures are even more complex to treat. There are many different types of hip fractures the main ones being, femoral head, femoral neck, intertrochanteric, and subtrochanteric fractures. The treatment depends largely on which type of fracture is obtained.
If surgery is either too dangerous or the patient refuses, traction may be considered for long-term treatment. If this is the case most patients will be bed-bound for several months and will need extreme physiotherapy when the bone has healed.
Majority of all hip fractures are surgically treated. The surgery itself is a very stressful ordeal for the patient, it is also very dangerous. It can either involve pins, plates or screws being inserted, partial hip replacement or full hip replacement.
Osteoporosis can be treated, one of the largest ways being medication, there are a variety of different medications available that do a lot of different things. Exercise is vital, as is maintaining suitable calcium and vitamin D levels. Avoiding smoking and excess alcohol are small life changes that can help prevent osteoporosis.
Paget’s disease cannot be cured but it can be treated in 4 main ways, physical therapy, prevention medicines, pain-relief medicines and surgery. Surgery is usually only needed for fractures or if physical therapy and medication are no longer working joint replacement may be considered. In order to slow down the advancement of Paget’s disease, it is vital to absorb enough calcium and vitamin D, receive adequate sunshine and exercise regularly.
Arthritis treatment varies according to the type. Physical therapy, lifestyle changes, medications and dietary changes are all common forms of treatment. In extreme cases joint replacement surgery may be needed. Research shows that diets high in marine oils (eg. Salmon, tuna) reduce the inflammation of joint conditions such as arthritis. Exercise has also reduced pain in many cases.
In conclusion the skeletal system is a major part of the human body; it is made up of, on average 206 bones. A bone has 4 main parts which make up its structure, the periosteum, cortical bone, cancellous bone and the bone marrow. There are 5 different types of bones, long, short, flat, irregular and sesamoid and many different categories which bones fall into. The most common joints are synovial joints and there are 6 different types; hinge, pivot, ball and socket, saddle, condyloid and gliding. There are 6 main types of breakages; greenstick, spiral, comminuted, transverse, compound and vertebral compression. The most common breakages occur in the wrist, ankle and hip. They’re mostly repaired through casts, splints or surgery. The top 3 bone diseases are osteoporosis, Paget’s disease and arthritis; they are treated through various forms of medication and surgeries. The main way to prevent further advancement of these diseases is to maintain suitable calcium and vitamin D levels and exercise regularly. The human skeletal system is a complex and interesting subject to look into; bones will keep growing and the people studying it will develop better technology to study the skeletal system in more detail.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Book - Gregory Stewart
2004
The Skeletal and Muscular Systems
Your Body How is Works
USA
Book - Carol Ballard
2005
The Skeleton and Muscles
Exploring the Human Body
London
Book - Pam Walker
2003
The Skeletal and Muscular Systems
Understanding the Human Body
USA
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Interview - Faye Pattie
25th May 2008
Personal Experience of Breaking a Bone
Article - Edward L. Schneider
2001
“Winning the Battle of the Bones”
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