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Tonsils: These glands produce antibiotics against inhaled organisms.
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Thymus: This gland is the site where important lymphocytes known otherwise as T-Cells mature.
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Spleen: This is the largest one of the lymph organs. The spleen produces anti-bodies and filters out damaged red blood cells.
Muscular-Skeletal System
Muscles
The main function of the muscular system is designed to aid movement within the human body. Any type of movement that we attempt involves the use of at least one muscle. The gross structure is basically attached to all bones within the body, that is why it is more commonly known as the musculo-skeletal system.
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Pectorals: This is a muscle in the front cavity of the chest. It is known to be the bulk of the chest in a male and under the breasts of a female.
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Biceps: this is a muscle from either of two muscle pairs in the body (left or right)
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Brachioradials: this is a muscle in the forearm that acts to flex the forearm at the elbow.
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External Oblique: the largest muscle within the abdominal area
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Sartorius: a long thin muscle that runs down the front of the thigh
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Quadriceps: includes 4 prevailing muscles on the front of the body
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Extensor digitorum longus: this is situated at the top of the front of the leg
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Tibialis: this is the muscle in the shin area, it spans the complete length of the tibia
Muscular-Skeletal System
Bones
The main function for the skeletal system is to provide a safe structure for all internal organs, this provides a framework to prevent our organs from being damaged. Another function is to aid movement in all human beings. The gross structure is all internal, as it is basically the skeleton which contain 206 named bones.
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Maxilla: This is the fusion of 2 bones in the upper jaw cavity
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Mandible: this is the largest and strongest bone in the face. This forms the lower jaw
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Clavicle: this is a long bone that makes up part of the shoulder blade
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Ribs: the long curved bones which form the rib cage. The main function of your ribs is to protect your vital organs
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Sternum: this is a long flat bone located in the centre of the chest, also known as your breastbone
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Radius: this is situated on the forearm and extends from the outside of the limb
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Ulna: this is also known as the elbow bone. It is situated on the inside of the lower arm
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Pelvis: this is the long bony structure located at the base of the spine
Immune System
The main function of the immune system is to fight against unknown antibodies, diseases and infections.
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Adenoids: mass of tissue situated in the back of the nose
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Tonsils: lumps of tissue situated either side of the throat
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Thymus: an organ situated in the upper portion of the chest cavity right behind the breastbone
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Lymph Nodes: they are situated all over the body, and their main function is to swell up to fight bacteria and infection
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Spleen: This is a vital organ located in the abdomen. Its main function is to destroy old red blood cells and fight infections
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Lymphatic vessels: these are small vessels spread throughout the human body and are there because they generate the blood around the body during circulation
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Peyer’s patches: they are found in the lower part of the intestine and are responsible for the importance of the immune system
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Appendix: the appendix has no particular function but is situated on the right side in the lower abdomen
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Bone marrow: this is the soft tissue found in the hollow interior of the bones
Digestive System
The main function of the digestive system is to turn food into energy. The digestive system contains many different components, most of which are explained below:
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Nasal cavity – This is situated behind the nose, and its main function is to receive and give out oxygen during breathing
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Mouth – This is situated on the lower part of the face, its main function is accepting food and drink
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Oesophagus – Food is passed through this part of the digestive system. It is sometimes mistaken for the trachea.
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Liver – The main purpose of the liver is to maintain the glycogen storage. The liver is situated just below the diaphragm
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Stomach – this is a bean shaped organ, situated just below the oesophagus and its main function is to break down certain molecules within the body
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Pancreas – The pancreas is within the human body because it both, produces hormones and secretes pancreatic juices
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Gall bladder – this is a pear shaped organ and its main function is to store bile
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Duodenum – It is known as the smallest part of the small intestine and its main function is being responsible for the break down of food in the small intestine
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Large intestine – its function is to absorb the remaining water from undigested food taken in through the mouth
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Small intestine – the small intestine is connected to the large intestine and therefore carries waste towards the exterior
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Rectum – this is about 20mm long and its function is to remove waste effectively. This is the exit for faeces and other waste products
Task Two
P2. Describe the structure of the main tissues of the body and their role in the functioning of two named body systems. Reproductive System and Immune System.
Cuboidal Epithelium
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Cube-shaped present in single layers
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They can be found in the eye and the ovaries
Columnar Epithelium
- It can be found in the lining of the uterus and the intestinal tract.
- One layer of thick cells
Squamous Epithelium
- Flat scale-like cells
- Can be found in the lining of the body cavities
- Found in the skin
- There function is to reduce friction
Ciliated Epithelium
- Can be found in the airways
- It is tissue with tiny hairs surrounding the edges
Simple compound
- This is very similar to skin in its make up.
- Can be found all over the body
Keratinised compound
- This is basically hair molecules
- These cover the body throughout
- Systems: respiratory system, digestive system and reproductive system
Blood
- Consists of 4 components: RBC, WBC, Platelets and Plasma
- Flows throughout the body
Cartilage
- Found between all bones in order to prevent them from rubbing
- Found mainly in joints, rib cage and face
Bone
- Many different types of bones
- 80% of our body is bone
- Bone is found in the Skeletal System
Areolar
- Type of tissue found in the skin
- Surrounds the blood vessels and nerves
Striated Muscle
- This muscle is found mainly in the face
- Connects tissue together
Non-Striated Muscle
- Found in the bones
- No control over these muscles
Cardiac muscle
- Found in the heart
- Function: pump blood through the heart towards the lungs and rest of the body
D1. Use examples to explain how body systems interrelate with each other
Through this part of the assignment I am going to show how many of the body’s systems link in with each other relevantly. I will explain the ways in which different systems link together.
The nervous system is linked very closely with the musculo-skeletal system as they both involve the physical activity of the human being. For example, an individual using their muscles for everyday activities, this involves using the nerves for their co-ordination.
The endocrine system is connected with both the reproductive systems due to the endocrine system producing the hormones that are released from the reproductive systems during the menstruation cycle.
The lymphatic system and the immune system are also linked very closely together. The lymphatic system is actually part of the immune system which aids the fight against disease-causing organisms.
Task Three
P3. Describe how the body may metabolise the major products of digestion
Pick a meal and describe how the digestive system would digest this meal, think about all the processes of digestion e.g. chemical and mechanical. Describe how the body will use the digested food.
The meal I have chosen to look into is a ham sandwich.
The food begins by getting placed into the mouth; it is then chewed up by your teeth and tongue. Saliva is a substance containing amylase, which is then, produced which starts the chemical reaction of digestion.
After the food has been chewed to the correct consistency, it is swallowed down the oesophagus.
The oesophagus helps to move the food down into the stomach, as it’s connected. As the food begins to enter the stomach the muscles begin to twist and churn up the food. This is all part of the mechanical process of digestion.
The food that is being churned is then mixed with gastric juice which is produced in the stomach. The food is then passed through the intestines which also contain natural juices which mix with the food.
Throughout the small intestine are small structures known as villi. These enable to food to pass through easier. The villi contain tiny blood vessels and the food is absorbed through these and carried to all the major body cells through the lymphatic system. The rest of the waste material gets deposited through the large intestine and colon, where water is absorbed and the remaining solid waste gets secreted through the anus.
M2. Explain the probable homeostatic responses to changes in the internal environment following the consumption of a healthy meal.
Explain how the internal balance of the body changes after eating a healthy meal. Explain why and how these changes take place.
Normally, in the human body the homeostatic responses remain stable however when food enters the body this is changed.
After food has been placed in the mouth, it begins to produce a fluid known as saliva. This liquid has 2 main functions:
- Help to break down food
- Act as a lubricant
Food then enters the oesophagus only partly digested. Then get moved along by peristalsis. The food then enters the stomach where more chemical digestion takes place. The stomach churns up the food involving mechanical processing and then mixes with hydrochloric acid and creates a substance called chyme. Chyme is a mixture which is activated by the hydrochloric acid in order to produce certain chemicals such as, pepsins which are to breakdown the proteins into smaller molecules.
After the stomach has churned all the food, the stomach releases a small amount of chyme. Pancreatic juice and intestinal juice are added to this mixture.
Pancreatic juice
This consists of water, mineral salt and enzymes such as, amylase and lipase.
Intestinal juice
This consists of water, mucous, mineral salts, and enzymes such as, maltase, sucrase, lactase and peptidases.
The liver
The liver contains bile which is secreted.
As you can see from above all of these chemicals that are produced by the digestive system, all affect the homeostatic balance within the body. Therefore, the response of the body will change when we eat something. This affects the homeostatic response of the body after eating a healthy meal.
Task Four
P4. Describe the homeostatic mechanisms that regulate heart rate, breathing rate, body temperature and blood glucose.
Through the task I will be talking about homeostatic mechanisms that regulate heart rate, body temperature and blood glucose.
Heart rate
The heart rate is described as being the number of times your heart beats within a minute. It is controlled by the medulla oblongata otherwise known as a part of the brain stem. Its main function in the body is to aid the breathing in normality. The average heart rate for one person differs depending that of the person.
Body Temperature
This is controlled by the hypothalamus which is also a part of the brain stem. Its main function is to keep the bodies temperature with a reasonable range. This should be between the range of 36˚C and 36.9˚C.
Normal human temperature
Previously, average oral temperature for healthy adults had been considered 98.6 °F (37.0 °C), while normal ranges are 36.1 to 37.8 °C. In Russia, the temperature had been measured axillary. 36.6 °C was considered "ideal" temperature, while normal ranges are 36 to 36.9 °C.
Recent studies suggest that the average temperature for healthy adults is 98.2 °F or 36.8 °C (same result in three different studies). Variations (one standard deviation) from three other studies are:
- 36.4 - 37.1 °C
- 36.3 - 37.1 °C for males, 36.5 - 37.3 °C for females
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36.6 - 37.3 °C
Blood Glucose
Blood glucose is known as being the amount of glucose present in the blood. There should be on average 3.3g – 7g of glucose within the body on an average person with roughly 5 litres of blood. Glucose levels rise after every meal and are present in most foods. With such a rise in glucose levels can lead to a person becoming confused and drowsy. With a lack of blood glucose in the body, the person feels unwell and not their usual self.
Normally, blood glucose levels stay within narrow limits throughout the day: 4 to 8 mmol/L (70 to 150 mg/dL), thus the total amount of glucose in the bloodstream is 3.3 to 7g (5L blood estimated). Levels rise after meals and are usually lowest in the morning, before the first meal of the day.
Task Five
P5. Measure temperature, pulse and breathing rates before and after a standard exercise and comment upon the validity of the data.
Brisk Walk
This was fairly easy to carry out as brisk walking can be done around college. I felt that the results that I had collected were quite precise but may obviously have little errors. There are many reasons why errors may have occurred.
- Lose concentration
- Distractions
- Background noise
- Lose count
P6. Interpret data obtained from measuring the body’s response to exercise
The rates that I obtained were valid as they were carried alongside college friends and teacher. We were asked to take a brisk walk around college and to get someone of the class to note the changes in the 3 areas. I found it fairly easy to obtain these results although, the person who counted my results was unable to do it properly due to background noise. These results are fairly reliable but, as above, there may be some errors due to distractions.
When exercise is taking place, your body temperature and breathing rate increases. The person begins to respire more and they become hotter and produce more sweat. Also, their metabolism speeds up which aids in the process of breaking down food within the body.
After looking at the data, I felt that the changes occurred due to the speeding up of my metabolism. This increased many factors in the temperature, pulse and breathing rate. One of the other reasons why changes occurred would be due to lack of exercise and being unfit. This made it harder to carry out even a simple exercise such as brisk walking.
M3. Analyse data obtained to show how homeostatic mechanisms control the internal environment during exercise
When exercise is taking place the body’s internal balance will generally increase due to the fact the heart has to pump more oxygenated blood around the body to the living cells to allow the individual to have enough energy. The brain sends messages around the body to all the living cells to show that the individual is carrying out exercise therefore, needs to make allowances for this. The individual carries on exercising but is aware of the change in different factors within the internal environment of the human body.
D2. Explain the importance of homeostasis in maintaining the healthy functioning of the body.
It is extremely important for an individual to maintain an internal balance in order for all organs to function properly.
For example
If an individual’s temperature was tested on a hot summer’s day, you would find that the persons would most likely be sweating which is getting rid of all the body’s fluid causing the individual to become dehydrated and need more fluid intake.
If an individual’s temperature was tested on a cold winter’s day, you would find that the person would probably be shivering in order to keep the internal balance at a stable level. This helps the body to keep warm.
The reason it is important to have an internal balance is due to the body needing to maintain a balanced temperature. This will save the body from becoming too cold or too hot.
Another example would be a diabetic having too much sugar. The brain sends messages around the body telling it that too much sugar is in the blood and that some of it should now be stored as fat content. This is done by releasing more insulin to counteract it. This could cause the individual to maybe go into a coma if too much sugar is present. If the individual didn’t have enough sugar, the body reacts differently, the body shuts down, and sometimes can cause an individual to become unconscious and break up fat.
Therefore, it is really important that every individual has an internal balance.
