- Embryo cloning- this uses an embryo to create monozygotic (identical) twins or triplets. The process removes a few cells from a fertilised egg and then placed under conditions which would encourage it to replicate itself, creating an identical embryo.
- Reproductive (SCNT) cloning- A cell is taken from a donor woman and an unfertilised egg is taken from another woman. The cell’s DNA is then removed and the egg is enucleated. The somatic cell is then cultured in a media and the egg and the cell are fused together by electricity. The egg is then implanted into a surrogate mother and then a cloned baby is produced which is genetically identical to the donor. A somatic cell is any cell in the human body except the egg or the sperm.
- Therapeutic (biomedical) cloning- this process is similar to reproductive cloning however in this case the stem cells are removed from the pre-embryo in order to produce organs or tissue which can be replaced by damaged tissue in people. Stem cells are able to do this because they are able to grow into any cell of the body and perform cell division to an extent that they are able to create an organ. Stem cells are the method embryos use to develop into foetuses.
These techniques have been tested for many years and most results are failures but people fear that one day cloning humans will be possible. This fear is drawn from the unlikelihood of the clone’s survival. Scientists fear that applying any of the above cloning techniques to humans will have devastating affects on the clone such as malformations or diseases. Many ethicists and theologians disagree with cloning because they believe it to be morally wrong. Ethicists who vary by culture rather than religion oppose it for the following reasons:
- They believe that the child may have physical defects such as accelerated aging. Some people believe that the cell used in the cloning process has been “exposed to a lifetime”.
- There may also be psychological harm - diminished sense of individuality
- diminished sense of personal autonomy
- They may feel that they are forced to follow the path of the donor and don’t have the free will to be different.
- Objectification of the clone by the parent whereby the parent chooses desirable traits for their child in order that the child serves them.
- The concept of eugenics which leads into the previous point.
- They feel that the funds given to this research would be better spent on the “common good”. This is the lives of the people who are already alive i.e. those in poverty.
Theologians have a similar view to ethicists but some have very strict beliefs on this topic:
- Roman Catholics – they believe that any form of cloning should be illegal because of their belief in the creation story and the “sanctity of life”. They fear that clones will be rejected; therefore they hold the view that “every possible act of human cloning is intrinsically evil”.
- Protestants – they believe that it can be ethically justified in cases of infertile people but they believe that a traditional “natural” upbringing is more important. However they have strict rules on eugenics because they believe that choosing a child’s heredity is unjust because it makes them a “project”
- Jewish – they believe that human dignity and sanctity isn’t enough to hinder medical progress. They believe that cloning “can conceivably be justified”.
- Islam – they believe that each issue of cloning should be handled separately in its own right. However human cloning is forbidden under any circumstance.
However scientists disagree with these arguments because they believe that this research is exceptionally important. They respond to the arguments made by the ethicists by saying:
- The physical and psychological harm to the clone is a myth and the clones will belong to a world where they will be accepted.
- The objectification of clones is worth it if they are intellectuals because they are more useful than harmful.
- The social harm caused by eugenics and the issue of research funds is left to the government who can stop research grants if they feel the scientists are being “inhumane”.
It is clear that cloning holds many advantages for people but many believe it defies the laws of nature. There are also many disadvantages of the cloning process.
Cloning enables doctors to:
- Determine the cause of Spontaneous abortions
- Determine the cause of Oncologists (rapid cell growth of cancer)
- Allow stem cells to regenerate nerve tissue
- It can advance work on genetics and medicine
- SCNT enables the production of new drugs, insulin, plant and livestock for the poor. It can also be used to track biological weapons and catch criminals.
There is also gene therapy which benefits many people because it helps to treat, cure or prevent certain diseases by means of altering a persons DNA. Scientists are able to do this because they inject gene carriers (vectors) into the body which send therapeutic cells to cells where they correct faulty genes. It can treat diseases like Alzheimer’s, Schizophrenia, Sickle cell anaemia and Down syndrome.
However cloning can also have terrible consequences on people, such as:
- High number of miscarriages and increasing numbers of infant mortality
- Family dynamics are altered
- Embryo black markets (selling embryos)
- Cloned chromosomes can match the age of the donor e.g. a 5 year old clone whose genetic makeup is of a 10 year olds (this causes an increase risk of heart disease and cancer
Scientists are able to determine that these problems will occur in human cloning because of the experience they had with Dolly. She was alive for 6 years despite the fact that the average lifespan of a sheep is 12 years. The donor cell taken to produce Dolly came from a 6 year old sheep, this made scientist question Dolly’s “true” age. Lung disease is common among older sheep but Dolly was still quite young when she died; this is evidence that cloning was the cause of her death. However there is no real proof to prove that cloning was the cause of her death. It is possible that she was “older” than her body proving that there are dangers in cloning humans.
Another problem which challenges ethicists is the idea of eugenics. The literal meaning of eugenics is “a science that deals with the improvement of hereditary qualities of a race or a breed”. Many people believe that a world like this will exist where cloning will start a trend where parents pick desirable traits for their children. This would begin a transgenic era where people will be “super human”. This will be done by means of genetic intervention.
In effect I believe that cloning can have many advantages to an extent but human cloning shouldn’t be allowed because the sacrifices required are too great. I think that scientists would find it difficult to draw the line between therapeutic and enhancement cloning. Therapeutic cloning brings many benefits but I believe it has too many infringements on nature. Also a world of eugenics would cause a lot of genetic discrimination. The National Bioethics Advisory Committee stated that “while using animals to understand the biological processes that produced Dolly hold great promise for future medical advances there is no current justification for attempting to produce a human child at this time with this technique.” The real question of whether human cloning should be allowed resides in the question, what is more important, the physical and psychological welfare of the child or personal autonomy and freedom of inquiry?