At the age of seven little boys are separated from their mothers, sisters, and all other female contact and sent to men’s homes. Here the boys undergo certain initiations and “male development and masculinization are the responsibility of the men’s secret cult” (56). This separation from feminine contact can be very hurtful and destructive to little boys. Without the influence of the mother, who provides nurturing and emotions, the boys grow up striving for extreme masculinity. The men of the tribe severely beat the boys, as well as force them to participate in practices where “stiff, sharp grasses are thrust up the nostrils until the blood flows copiously” (Kilmartin 110). The boys are trained by the older men to accept pain and suppress their emotions at an early age. Between the lack of female involvement and the rigorous pursuit for masculinity, the boys become susceptible to the consequences of restrictive emotionality. Kilmartin says that restrictive emotionality is very dangerous and can lead to destructive habits like drinking excessively or becoming overly aggressive and violent. Not only do the boys become susceptible to the consequences of restrictive emotionality, but in the Sambian’s pursuit of masculinity they “engage in dangerous hunting or fishing as a sign of manliness” (109). This is the idea that masculinity is something that is achieved. The Sambians are like other societies that David Gilmore talks about, where masculinity is “something that the culture most build into males through various socialization processes” (109). He claims that these practices, like the initiations of the Sambians, are in place so that “men fulfill specific functions for the social group,” like risking their lives to provide food for the rest of the tribe. (109). The females in the tribe reach their maturity through the simple process of menstruation. Once the women have “naturally matured,” they are “ready for marriage and procreation” (56).
Another part of the boys’ initiation into manhood is the practice of homosexual fellatio. The Sambians do not believe that they have the ability to “internally produce semen,” therefore they must require “magical ritual treatments” to increase the amount of semen in their bodies (56). They do this through the practice of homosexual fellatio. Once the boy marries he is then able to engage in heterosexual sex, but he may also continue the homosexual affairs as well. It is not until the man impregnates his wife that he must end his endeavors with younger boys. This system seems unfair to actual homosexuals who may not want to be married to a woman and begin engaging in heterosexual affairs. However, he must because all marriages are determined by the parents of the bride and groom. This leaves no room for sexual preference and must leave some men sexually unsatisfied.
The United States is far superior to the Sambians in their definitions of gender roles. The Sambians view women as inferior and suppress them, while the United States is making a conscious effort to promote gender equality. Laws are set up to protect women and prohibit discrimination based on one’s sexuality. The United States is also superior in their raising of boys. Though boys in the United States are raised with the mentality that emotions are feminine and should be suppressed, this is not to the extent of the Sambians. At least here boys are not stripped from all feminine influence and beaten until they have achieved masculinity. Though masculinity is an achieved status in both cultures, it is at a much higher cost in New Guinea. One thing that both societies fail to do is protect the sexual choice of everyone. Sambian men are required to stop homosexual activity once they have impregnated their wives that they are forced to marry. This is unfair to those Sambians who prefer to be with other men. Likewise, the United States has still failed to recognize same sex marriages in many states. Both cultures are trying to shape and decide who they want to be married.
The Arapesh tribe, like the Sambians, is also a primitive society. They also make their living through hunting and gardening, however the responsibilities and duties of the people differ greatly from the Sambians. They live “a scattered, semi nomadic life…with a very ‘sparse’ population” (Roscoe 8). This society is based upon the principles of “responsiveness to others, and attentiveness to others” and not competitiveness and aggressiveness (Mead 15). The women and men share equally in their duties, with none being more important than the other. Pertaining to the gardens, “men do the initial clearing, tree-lopping, and fencing, and the women do the planting, weeding, and harvesting” (18). This has nothing to do with one gender doing the more demeaning job, but each gender doing what they are best able to do best. Men are biologically stronger, thus they are more capable of clearing trees. It is a society where “the norm for men is to be gentle, unacquisitive, and co-operative, where no man reckons up the debts that another owes him, and each man hunts that others may eat” (30).
Though the people are friendly and non-violent, there are some gender inferiority issues. The Arapesh prefer to only have one or two girls and may chose to kill a baby if it is a girl. They prefer boys because boys “will stay with [their] parents and be the joy and comfort of their old age” (33). The father is extremely involved in the caring of a new baby and sleeps every night with the infant and the mother, usually until the child is three or four. There is a strict taboo on sex while the child is young so that the child does not have to be weaned too early on. Arapesh parents “feel the abrupt weaning to be cruel, and likely to affect the child’s growth adversely” (38). Not only is the father very active in the raising of infants, but he also contributes his help with the other children. Because the parents equally share the tasks, if the wife’s “task is more urgent-if there are no greens for the evening meal-the husband stays at home and takes care of the children” (39). This offers the children a very nurturing environment that also displays men as emotional and caring. The most prominent way that Arapesh children are nurtured is through physical contact. As babies, they are constantly held by either their parents or older siblings. Once they become older they are taught the ability to nurture through taking care of their younger siblings and holding them. This goes for both sexes; as a young child, no sex is nurtured more than the other.
One way that women are showed a more demeaning status is through the tamberan ritual. The tamberan is the “supernatural patron of the grown men of the tribe… and must never be seen by women” (63). Before the tamberan arrives there are feasts and celebrations; as soon as he arrives the women are forced to run as fast as they can to the bottom of the mountain, thus in order to avoid seeing him. Many believe that the tamberan is a way of “maintaining the authority of the older men over the women and children”. They view it as a system “directed against women, designed to keep them in their ignominious places and punish them if they try to emerge” (67). Another way that women are treated as inferior is in the way they are raised to be wives. A young girl is betrothed to a slightly older boy and leaves to live with his family. The future husband and his father and brothers combine to feed and take care of her. In this way, an “Arapesh boy grows his wife” (80). Because he has grown her he now is able to control her and possess her.
Though there are some characteristics that are inferior to the United States (the ritual of the tamberan), the United States could learn a lot from this primitive tribe. Fathers should be more involved in the raising of their children, and peacefulness should be instilled in children, not competitiveness. Excessive masculinity should not be a desired trait; boys should not wish to suppress their emotions. In the Arapesh tribe they are also successful in nurturing both children, and not only the females. This tribe has much strength in child rearing, as well as equal working for all the adults.
From studying these two tribes it is clear that different cultures have totally different ideas about raising children and the gender roles these children should play. While one encourages aggressive men, the other promotes passiveness. This is a strong indication of the power that society has to influence people. The roles of men and women are clearly shaped by the traditions and customs of society, as well as the biological attributes that come with men and women.
Bibliography
Gilbert Herdt, and Robert J. Stoller
1990 Intimate Communications:Erotics and the Study of Culture. Columbia University Press
Mimica, Jadran
2001 “Sambia Sex Cultures: Essays From the Field,” Australian Journal of Anthropology. Vol. 12.
Mead, Margaret
1963 Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies. William Morrow and Company. New York.
Roscoe, Paul B.
1994 “Arapesh—Social Life and Cultures,”Ethnology. Vol. 33.
