One such factor was religion, Houlbrook states that ‘intercession for the soul of the departed was the main purpose of the medieval church’s funeral’ However Houlbrook goes too far, better is Llewellyn who argues that before the reformation religion and faith took a more central role in the funeral than after the reformation, whilst placing greater emphasis upon social status. Llyewern uses pre-reformation iconography to show this, before the reformation he found the images of Christ, Mary and the Saints to be central, whilst after the reformation, gradually status symbols reinforcing hierarchy became more common. The medieval church’s doctrine of purgatory and the fear that those in purgatory may haughty the living, an idea encouraged unofficially by the church, made pray for the dead and any other means of shortening a persons stay in purgatory important to the funeral. For example the four rites of the medieval church all call for god to have mercy upon the soul of the departed, in other words reduce the time spent in purgatory. Pray for the dead was another means of reducing the time the deceased may spend in purgatory. The giving of alms to the poor can be interpreted as a method of ensuring their prayers, John Baret a rich man from Bury St Edmunds gave a penny to every poor man at his dirge and also to the lazars and chronically sick. Sin-eaters are perhaps an even clearer example; they would eat bread and drink over the coffin during funeral procession in order to absolve the sins of the deceased. However the giving of alms after continued after the reformation, suggesting that it owed more to a general charitable tradition or perhaps more pertinently it could be viewed as an assertion of status. The coat of arms of the deceased, at heraldic funerals, were placed around the church, the armour of the deceased was also often placed upon alter, the most holy of places in the church, suggesting religious concerns not to be foremost. The funerals of the poor often allocated more money for drink than to any religious concerns. Whilst pre-reformation English funerals certainly appear affected by religious concerns, it is difficult to go as far as Holbrook and assert that they provided the main purpose of the funeral in this period.
Religion as stated above, became considerable less significant after the reformation, where a focus upon status became more explicitly the function of the funeral. The reasons for this are clear; the rejection of purgatory is effectively the disassociation of the funeral from any religion function. Protestants removed the need for the prayer for the dead; the priest would no longer attend the processions at heraldic funerals, which before the reformation had been a huge event, with numerous priests often being present. The dirge, or office of the dead ended, which at one time would be sung at the funeral, and if they could afford it for days or weeks after the funeral and on anniversaries. Post-reformation priests would now sing from scripture about the passing of worldly possessions, also teaching of resurrection in a transformed state. However to suggest that the English experience of the reformation was universal is too simplistic. The process was gradual with regional differences persisting across the country for different periods of time. Edward VI attempted to end bell ringing after and during funerals, however Cressy’s Study of ecclesiastical administration uncovered local variations, in Kent 1562 three peals in burials were given this was seen as excessive but not illegal, whilst in Yorkshire the bell was not tolled at all. This regional inconsistency was typical of the experience of the reformation, because the attitude of local priest played such an important role in the ceremony. In general terms however it is possible to argue that before the reformation, fear of avoidance of purgatory was a feature of the funeral and so the funeral served religious functions. While after the reformation, to varying levels, religious aspects to the funeral were abandoned.
Although relatively speaking the funeral, as Llewellyn argues became more about social status and less about religion after the reformation, it also became increasingly private, as Cressy points out the aristocratic funeral became less about impressing all of society and more about impressing other elites. The reformation, did little to effect the funeral of the elite, until around 1600 they remained large public affairs however during the 17th Century the ruling class’s became increasingly aloof, they stopped attending the same social functions as the poor, like local parades and carnivals, this social trend also effected the funeral. The move to the private funeral took place during the reign of James I, perhaps because of his more liberal religious attitudes. aristocratic funeral became more private, many funerals even taking place at night, they no longer had such huge processions, although many remained large, the poor were more marginal or excluded all together, the use of black cloth became less extravagant, the gifts for the poor became less common. Large amounts of money were spent on rings, scarves and gloves for guests clear symbols of refinement and class amongst other things. In other words religion changed the form and appearance of the funeral for all social groups but pomp, remained prominent feature of the funerals of the rich throughout.
The reinforcement of social hierarchy was the most significant feature of both the post and pre-reformation funeral. This is best explained by the fact that Death doesn’t take class into account, ‘the implication of such even handed treatment was profoundly damaging to the social fabric’ In order to lessen the damage done, the funeral was used to reassert hierarchy by reflecting and reinforced social hierarchy. The funeral distinguished between rich and poor and also between those of rank.
The funerals of the poor were distinct from those of the rich in many ways, relating to status. The size of the procession indicated status, the lengths travelled suggest exposure. The reason for the long processions owes almost exclusively to the desire to show, as many people as possible, the distinction between rich and poor. The procession change after the reformation, most considerable of all, however many remained large, for example Lord Keeper Sir Nicholas Bacon’s funeral in 1579 had 300 participants at a cost of £669. Additionally the use of black cloth in huge quantities often 50-60% of funeral costs, which when we consider that many elite funerals cost £1000, is a huge sum. Black acted as an impressive backdrop to the arms of the deceased, which stood out brightly, suggesting grandeur and breading. The feast, also acted to reinforce hierarchy between rich and poor, the poor were allowed to attend the feast, more commonly before the reformation. They received food and drink on a large scale, reminding them of the superior resources available to the rich and their dependency upon them. The giving of alms itself can be interpreted as stated above, as a means of reinforcing hierarchy. The inclusion of the poor in the ceremony can also be seen as an attempt to highlight difference, upon seeing the ceremony the poor man or woman would retell the story, thus reinforcing further the differences between poor and rich. The reformation changed this, the poor would no longer attend the funeral, this appears as a wider trend towards the separation of poor and rich is all walks of social life.
The rich sought increasingly after the reformation to impress each other before the poor, this was reflected in the funerals, which became increasingly private but still ultimately functioned to reinforce hierarchy. The funerals throughout this period were organised by Heralds, the role of which was to employ ‘visual signs in symbolic ways to identify individual members of families and indicate their rank.’ Whilst their material responsibilities became less vast after the reformation, for example less people were invited and less cloth had to be brought, their emphasis upon hierarchy became even clearer, probably because the rich now placed greater emphasis upon distinguishing between themselves internally rather than between themselves and the poor. This fits with Burks argument that a general cultural trend towards greater separation of elite and working culture too place during this period. The heralds set down precise guidelines referring to, the exact amounts and quality of black cloth, allowed to each rank, spending here was not affected dramatically by the reformation, in fact the sums paid often grew larger as a percentage of total cost after the reformation. Pursuivants, the college of heralds, from 1621 specified rules about the size of hearse allowed to each rank. Additionally the hearse, which transported the body to the grave, would be covered with status symbols which distinguish between different ranks. It is clear that the heralds established rules and boundaries that distinguished the funerals of the elites according to rank. This emphasises upon rank is linked with succession and the priority given to the family status above the individual death.
Another important theme in the heraldic funeral was succession. As stated above the funeral was more about the social body than the physical body, the use of a coat of arms represented the social position of the deceased not the deceased individual, this is clear from the emphasis upon rank that the heraldic rules establish. Additionally and hugely significantly the armour of the dead man is laid upon the alter during the funeral the heir is given the armour, symbolically investing in him the status and authority of the family. The staff of the deceased are also reminded of the importance of succession, for example house hold officers broke their staffs of office and threw them into the grave. Again symbolic of the succession and farewell, and sympathetic towards the new age. The importance of succession is illustrated with reference to the funerals of Women. The aristocratic lady received no such grand funeral; Anne Fortescuein’s in June 1518 cost little over £39, a relatively insignificant amount. The lack of pomp at female funerals is a clearly illustrates that when no title or social hierarchy is in question, the funeral takes a very different form to those where it does. The funeral acted to reaffirm the social status of families of high social standing.
Throughout this period pomp typified the wedding of the rich, whilst simplicity those of the poor. The funeral offered a place of hygienic disposal, mourning, satisfaction of certain religious duties to the dead, as well as more importantly the reinforcement of social status, between both rich and poor and internally by rank. The events of the reformation effected the relative importance of these factors, for example it reduced the importance of region to the funeral, as well as moving the funeral, gradually, from the public to the private sphere, however throughout the funeral offered a medium of maintaining the status quo by reinforcing social divisions, weather between or inside of class’s. Finally we should note the importance of the separation of the social and physical body in order to reinforce this continued division. The English were famed for their grand funerals, the main purpose of which was to reinforce social, political and economic hierarchies.
Bibliography
Houlbrook, death, religion, and the family in England 1480-1750, Clarendon press, Oxford, 1998
Llewellyn, the art of death, Reaktion Books ltd, 1991
Cressy, Birth, Marriage, and Death : Ritual, Religion, and the Life-cycle in Tudor and Stuart England, Oxford University Press, 1999
Gittings, Burial and the individual in early modern England, Routledge, 1988
Cressy, Birth, Marriage, and Death : Ritual, Religion, and the Life-cycle in Tudor and Stuart England, Oxford University Press, 1999. p 426
Houlbrook, death, religion, and the family in England 1480-1750, Clarendon press, Oxford, 1998
p292
Houlbrook (sorry cant find page number)
