Criticisms
- Ignores religion as a force of change e.g. liberation theology
- Fails to see that some benefit more from religion than others e.g. Rich and Men (This is a Marxist and Feminists criticism)
- Fails to accept the idea of secularisation.
Marxist Approach to Religion
The Infrastructure (Economic Base) determines the Superstructure. The Superstructure justifies the Infrastructure.
‘Religion is the opium of the people’
- It makes everything look very good, reality is distorted
- People tend to look on the bright side of things
‘Man makes religion, religion does not make man’ Marx 1844
Why? The answer is 2 fold:
- Firstly because religion reproduces, maintains and legitimises class inequality. It is an ideological approach, which reflects the ruling classes interests and ideas- it benefits the ruling class.
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Secondly most religion seems to originate amongst the oppressed classes. It helps the working class come to terms with their position and offers future hope.
Religion is an instrument of oppression
Since it acts as a mechanism of social control and promises the belief that the existing social order is ‘God Given’. God created the social world and the idea is that because he created it, it is impossible to alter. Religion disguises the true nature of the ruling class exploitation by suggesting that some people are poor because they are sinful or because God is testing them.
People are blinded from their true position – religion conceals the true source of economic, political and social power.
Religion cushions the effects of oppression
By promising an afterlife (heaven) in which those who suffer on earth will be rewarded. It offers justification for why the working class are in a low position e.g. God is testing them. Religion offers the hope of supernatural intervention through prayer etc.
In this way, religion is largely a conservative social force. It inhibits change. Religion, as part of the superstructure legitimates the interests of the ruling class.
Marxists refer to working of religion to support their case-the Case system is the best example. In Hindu societies, there is Caste system which has five levels or ‘Castes’
People are born into their Caste-status is ascribed. The notion of reincarnation in which people are reborn is important. The only was of being reborn into a higher caste is by fulfilling the duty in this life-this way there is a strong incentive to adhere to the rules of the caste and maintain social order. People are only able to marry others from their Caste.
Marxist Summary of Religion
Functions:
- Acts as a conservative force
- Acts as an instrument of oppression for the working class
- Acts to cushion the effects of oppression
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Maintains, legitimates and justifies inequalities in society.
Criticisms:
- Catholicism in Latin America. Teachings of religion are for then working class to become socially mobile. Liberation theology.
- In many non-capitalist societies, religion still survives.
- Secularisation. If religion has lost its power, how can it function as Marxists suggest.
Comparisons of Marxists and Functionalist Perspectives
Similarities:
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Both are macro approaches. They ask questions about the function of religion for society.
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Both see religion as a human creation. There is no supernatural realm. Marx believes that in a truly communist society there is no need for religion.
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Both see religion as a conservative force. It inhibits change.
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Both see it as providing comfort/support to individuals.
Differences
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Functionalists see religion positively, it promotes value consensus, and social solidarity. Marxists see religion negatively, it hides, distorts, and legitimises inequality and perpetuates class societies.
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Functionalists say society creates religion as a unifying force-Marxists say religion was originally created by the oppressed but is used by the ruling class to further their interests.
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Functionalists believe everyone benefits from shared values etc. Marxists believe that only the ruling class benefit from religion.
- Functionalists (At least Durkheim) believe that there is ‘something eternal about religion’, although it would become less important as society evolved.
Neo Marxists
While accepting many of the basic Marxists traditions, Neo Marxists have adapted and developed Marxism. One adaptation is that the superstructure can have a degree of independence from the Infrastructure.
As a criticism of Marxists and Functionalists, Neo Marxists use Catholicism in Latin America to show how religion acts as a force for social change. Manuduro argues that Chruches in Latin America promote change and instil hope.
Feminists
Functions:
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Religion is an ideological force that helps maintain patriarchy
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Perpetuates obedience and subservience of women
- Women are excluded from power
Women have always been the biggest consumers of religion, but on the whole have been served badly, disparaged and oppressed by the religions themselves.
Daly argues that religion acts as an ideological force in a number of ways:
- Religious Images
- Religious Teachings
- Exclusion from the Church Hierarchy
- Oppression and Deception
This negative perception held by many feminists has been challenged.
Watson:
- Veiling of women is often seen as social control.
- It allows women to cope with male oppression. Reduces possibility of sexual harassment and prevents women from being judged on basis of looks.
Weber
Both Functionalists and Marxists emphasize the role of religion in promoting social integration and impeding social change. However, Weber, argued that in some circumstances, religion can lead to social change.
In his book ‘The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism’, Weber examines the rise of a form of Protestantism known as Calvinism and the development of Western industrial capitalism.
Calvinist teachings states that its members should lead a simple, but rigorous and self disciplined lifestyle. This included long hours of work and little sleep and leisure time. The main emphasis was on being single minded and trying to wealthy. Lots of hard work led to social mobility and in this way Functionalists and Marxists are challenged because Calvinism leads to change.
McGuire
Examines the factors that influence the type of role religion plays in society.
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Beliefs: The beliefs of a particular religion will influence its role in society. E.g. religions that emphasise adherence to strong moral codes are more likely to produce members who are critical of society and seek to change it.
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Culture In societies where religious beliefs are central to culture, anyone wishing to produce changes tends to use a religious legitimisation for their action. In Britain, religion plays a less central role, so it is less significant in justifying social change.
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Social Location where an established church or other religious organisation plays a major role in political and economical life, there is considerable scope for religion to have an impact on social change.
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Internal organisation religions with a strong centralised source of authority have more chance of affecting events.
Stark and Bainbridge
Stark and Bainbridge see religion as meeting the needs of the individuals rather than those of society as a whole.
Religion offers a compensator. Compensators are a type of IOU – if individuals act in a particular way, they will eventually be rewarded. In the absence of immediate rewards, people are likely to turn to compensators. Since religion answers universal questions and offers compensators that meet universal human needs, religion can neither disappear, nor seriously decline.
Types of religious organisations:
Cults
Cults tend to be more individualistic than other forms of religion, because they often lack a fixed set of beliefs. They tolerate other beliefs. They often have customers rather than members. Many aspects of the New Age movement are based around cults.
NRM’s
In the 1970’s there was an emergence of new religions. Wallis categorised these as New Religious Movements.
World rejecting NRM’s
- Have most of the characteristics of a sect
- Their ideology is highly critical of the outside world.
- Members are expected to detach from society. Organisations like this are total institutions. They are often seen as ‘brainwashing’.
- Most are based around an unconventional communal lifestyle.
World Accommodating NRM’s
- Are usually offshoots of an existing major church or denomination
- These groups neither accept nor reject the world, they simply live with it. They are concerned with religious rather than worldly questions.
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Seek to restore the spiritual purity to a religion, which they believe has been lost in more conventional churches.
World Affirming NRM’s
- Very different from other religious groups and may lack some of the features normally associated with religion. Claim to provide access to supernatural or spiritual powers.
- Accept the world as it is. They offer the follower the potential to be successful in terms of the dominant values of society by unlocking spiritual powers with the individual.
- Followers carry on their normal lives
- E.g. Transcendental Meditation.
- Are like cults because they tolerate other movements.
Reasons for the Growth of sects, cults and new religious movements
1. Breakaway movements from established churches as a response to the Church’s decline.
Many classical sociologists saw a close relationship between the church and sects. With churches becoming more integrated with society, some would feel that the church had lost its power and intensity. This leads to the formation of a fundamentalist sect, with more intense commitment.
2. As a response to a decline in ‘Community’
For Wilson, the growth of religious sects can be linked to the decline from a society based on community, to a society based on self-interest. The transition from a society based on community, to an impersonal self centred society leads to a decline in religion, except in sects, which provide a haven of community in the impersonal modern world.
3. Marginality
Classical sociologists also pointed out that religious belief, was closely related to social stratification. Weber pointed out that sects are likely to emerge amongst those at the bottom of the social hierarchy. Such groups are likely to develop a ‘theodicy of disprivilege’- a religious explanation and justification for why they are in their position. The exclusiveness of many sects gives people a sense of identity, something that was previously lacking. E.g. Black Muslims.
4.Relative Deprivation
Wallis argues that many young, white, middle class who joined world rejecting NRM’s were on the margins- ‘i.e. druggies’. Relative deprivation refers to a subjective feeling of deprivation. This says that while middle class people may not be objectively deprived, they may feel it.
It does not just refer to economic factors-the middle class can feel spiritually deprived-they see the world as materialistic and seek refuge ion a sense of community offered by some religious movements.
5. Career success/personal growth/fulfilment.
World affirming movements attract the more successful.
6.Modernity
The world has become more rational etc. and people go to NRM’s to find spirituality etc.
The appeal of world rejecting NRM’s
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Wallis argues that world rejecting NRM’s were attractive to young people in the 1960’s because they offered a more spiritual, caring way of life.
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Bruce sees their appeal as deriving from failure of the youth counter culture. Disillusioned young people sought their path to salvation through religion instead of peace and love.
The appeal of world affirming NRM’s
- Bruce believes that world affirming movements have grown because people find it difficult to gain satisfaction and a sense of identity from their work in contemporary society. They no longer have a sense of identity from their work in contemporary society. World affirming NR’s offer a solution-the offer people both success and a spiritual element to their lives.
Sects
Why some sects are short lived:
- Sect membership is based upon voluntary adult commitment. Once the adults have children, the children would be too young to understand the teachings of the religion.
- Sects normally have a charismatic leader. If he dies, the nature of leadership would change. The sect would no longer be held together by charisma. A bureaucratic denomination with a hierarchy may appear.
- Some sects promote hard work and encourage their members to save money. The members would be socially mobile and would not wish to be part of a group created for marginal members of society.
Post Modernism
Post modernism = after modernity. Post modernity refers to beliefs and ways of behaving that result from living in a postmodern society.
Modernity describes societies based around modern industrial production. Urban living. Acceptance of reason and rational science.
Sociology is based on these modern ways of thinking e.g.
- There is a social order to life
- Social research can understand this order
- Research can be used to make progress.