On the other hand, girls suffer from penis envy, because they see that they do not possess the male organ. Due to this, they devalue the mother’s position in the family because she also lacks a penis and is unable to provide herself or her daughter with one. The father is generally in power, thus making all females in the family sub-ordinates and causing them to adopt a submissive attitude. This is referred to as the Elektra Complex. Freud refers to the period between 5-10 years of age as the Latency Period. This is when sexual emotions are paused until they are reactivated by puberty.
Freud’s theory has been criticized by many sociologists. One of the major criticisms is that he bases his analysis solely on biological differences and more specifically, the ownership (or non-ownership) of a penis. Another criticism is the fact that he views the male sex organ as a lack in females, but the female sex organ is not considered a lack in males. It is also argued that the father is not always the figure of discipline in a family. In some societies the mother is considered the head of the family. Freud does not take this into account. Other theories also state that gender socialization begins at an earlier stage than in Freud’s theory.
Nancy Chodrow based her analysis of gender learning on Freud’s theory but adapted it to her ideas. She argued that gender awareness begins at a very early stage in a person’s life. She also places more importance on the maternal figure in the child’s life, rather than the paternal figure. Chodrow argues that the mother has such a dominant role because of her close attachment to the child in the early stages of its life.
According to Chodrow, boys are initially closely attached to the mother, but eventually detach themselves by means of a breaking process. This detachment is voluntary and caused by external messages that if they remain attached to the mother they will be less masculine and considered “sissies” and “mummy’s boys”. This causes them to completely repress their feelings towards the mother and makes them unable to relate closely to other people. This is known as Male Inexpressiveness. Boys try to achieve fulfillness through activities, such as sports, and chase their goals in an independent manner.
Girls do not have such a drastic breaking process as boys. They remain attached to the mother for a longer period of time. They tend to imitate the mother and see her as being dependent on the father. Due to this, later in their life, they will also depend on a man. In Chodrow’s theory, males are the ones who suffer from the loss. In this case it is their inability to express themselves. Their gender identity is formed through separation, thus later in their life they will feel intimidated and endangered if they become closely involved. On the other hand, women feel that if they do not form close relations with other people they are harming their self-esteems.
Chodrow’s studies have also been criticized. Janet Sayers, one of her most prominent critiques, argued that women can also be inexpressive, whilst some men are perfectly capable of expressing their feels.
Carol Gilligan also developed her own theory on gender socialization after conducting a research on a certain number of women. She argued that gender develops parallel to the morality of a person. Males see individual achievements as leading to success, therefore devaluing females’ ability of having close relationships. They see women’s caring qualities as their main weakness. Females always make sure not to harm anybody else. Their pride is in fulfilling the needs of others, not in personal goals. However, this theory has been criticized because it was developed using research on only white, middle-class females, so there is a possibility that it is biased.
Anne Oakley believed that the socialization of gender roles occurs in four ways: Manipulation, Canalization, Verbal Appellations, and Different Activities. These regard certain cultural influences that affect differences between the two genders. Some of these cultural differences include different dress codes, toys and different activities.
In fact children are immediately given different toys according to their sex. Boys are often given balls, and action figurines, whilst girls are expected to play with dolls. They are also expected to dress differently and take part in different activities. Boys are generally expected to be active and take part in sports, and girls who enjoy this type of physical activity are often labelled as ‘tomboys’.
The media also plays an important part in gender learning. Women are usually portrayed in the traditional roles of wife, mother, or damsel in distress. This is the case in both television, as well as in fairytales. In fact, fairytales, which are a heavy influence in a child’s upbringing, tend to describe how the heroic male protagonist rescues the woman. Certain fairytales have been converted to reverse the roles of the two sexes, but these conversions are generally treated as satires or parodies.
Another very important influence is dress code. Males and females generally wear completely different attire. Whilst even styles change throughout the ages, the differences in clothing are always present. For example, in the early 20th century, females in Malta used to wear the traditional “ghonella” whilst males used to wear typical caps, which are still quite common nowadays, especially throughout the elderly.
In Malta, Religion is an extremely important cultural influence in a child’s gender learning. This is mainly because Maltese society places great importance on this factor in family life. In fact, in the 1960’s a Maltese Bishop actually stated that if a married woman is employed and has a job, she is harming her family. Statements such as these are very relevant in the Maltese society.
Maltese society, in general, has a very heavy influence on a child’s gender socialization. Many females are continuing their education into the tertiary level and are chasing their diplomas. These women are unlikely to plan to become housewives and will probably be ambitious and seeking to establish themselves in a career.
A child’s upbringing is the result of various different influences, and these different factors breed individuality. However, in contemporary societies, where the gap between the to gender mentalities seems to be diminishing, can the two sexes settle down together, sacrifice their ambitions and raise a family?
Bibliography
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Giddens, A. “Sociology”, Polity Press, 3rd ed., 1997
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Haralambos M. & Holborn M. “Sociology Themes and Perspectives”, HarperCollins Publishers Limited, 5th ed. 2000
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Lawson T. & Garrod J. “The Complete A-Z Sociology Handbook”, Hodder & Stoughton, 2000
