The common people of the Aztec empire occupied most of the area though. Since family life was considered very important in the Aztec empire, people lived in close units. The basis of their society was the calpulli, or a group of families that all lived together. This huge family all came from a common ancestor and mostly lived together and in relative isolation from everyone else. They would conduct their affairs very efficiently as well. Officials were elected in the calpulli that made sure everything was running smoothly. All records, crimes, justice, and warfare were taken care of by these officials.
When children were born into the calpuli they were treated with particular love and care. They were very well protected, and their parents cared about them a great deal. But they were also susceptible to severe punishments when they disobeyed their elders. The children would be scratched with maguey thorns and were sometimes forced to breathe the smoke of burning chili peppers. This was supposed to instill a great deal of respect and manners in the children from a very young age. This system worked well in the Aztec society.1
Like the rest of the male-dominated world, in the Aztec Empire the men took control of all important and worthy affairs in the calpulli. The women had a relatively small role in society, and their duty to stay home, take care of the children, and do any other household works. They were never given the responsibility to take care of the calpulli’s other affairs. ¹
Over the years, as Tenochititlan and the other Aztec cities continued to grow, these calpulli became divisions in the cities. Each calpulli had a different political agenda, and it was often the case that the different calpullis in the city did not get along with each other. ³
Slavery also played a big part in the Aztec society. There were many different ways that one could become a slave or one could come in custody of a slave. If someone had stolen or gambled against a nobleman, then they would end up paying of their debt by working for the person for a specific amount of time. Many individuals who were homeless and had no life would sell themselves to a family and become indentured servants.² Other slaves were usually prisoners that were captured by warriors for the Aztec empire. This would lead to those prisoners working as slaves for the warriors for the rest of their lives, unless they were set free, which was very unlikely. ³
One remarkable fact about Aztec social classes was that a person’s class could be changed. This was very different from the caste system in India where you were born with in a class and you stayed there for the rest of your life. In the Aztec society if you were a successful person or achieved a lot in your life then you could be promoted classes.³ In the same way people that were lazy or abused their power and riches could also go down the ladder of classes. Warriors very often increased their wealth and prestige when they brought back prisoners from war. These prisoners became slaves as I stated before, and this resulted in a step up in the social ladder for the warriors. ²
The Aztec religion also played a big part in their society. They had a basic polytheistic religion in which they worshiped many different gods and goddesses. Some gods or goddesses were more important than others. Tezcatlipoca and Xiuhtecuhtli were two of the creator gods and were thought of as the most influential gods in the Aztec religion. These gods granted the people life, and in order to thank them and keep them happy, regular sacrifices were made. Quetzalcoatl, the maize god, was also worshipped by the Aztecs. He provided them with food, and whenever there was a flood or drought the Aztecs believed this was caused by the fact that Quetzalcoatl was unhappy. ³
The Aztecs believed that human sacrifices were a very important part of their religion, and were an excellent way to keep their demanding gods happy. They believed that these sacrifices maintained the cycle of life that was the Aztec empire, and prevented their world’s destruction. Many people volunteered to be sacrifices, but usually prisoners or slaves were sacrificed to the gods. The blood of the sacrifice was said to nourish the sun, and wet the heavens so that it would rain. ³
Just like most other cultures of their time, the Aztecs believed in an afterlife. Their world contained 13 heavenly layers and 9 layers of the underworld (hell). The Aztecs believed that their universe had been created four times before the current one, and all these creations had suffered natural destructions, such as jaguars, hurricanes, rain, and great floods. They believed that the fifth creation (their current world) would be destroyed by an earthquake. ³
There were many great achievements and technological advancements that occurred during the Aztec empire. They had two separate calendars. One was a solar calendar, which was made up of 18 months, and each month had 20 days in it. There were a total of 365 days in their solar calendar. Another calendar was their ritual calendar. It consisted of 260 days, and had 20 day names. These day names were accompanied by the numbers 1-13. For example if someone was born on the 10th day of Rabbit (a day name) then they would be given the name Ten Rabbit. The Aztecs also believed that after fifty-two years their current world would be susceptible to some sort of destruction. ³
The man who finally brought an end to the mighty Aztec rule, was Spanish explorer Hernan Cortes. He came into Mexico with his entire team of explorers in search of gold and other riches. Despite their wishes for riches, they did not expect to find a thriving empire that was completely at their mercy. Their plan was quite simple, and overtime it succeeded. Cortes realized that taking the king hostage could be the way to conquer the entire empire, and that is what resulted. Montezuma, the Aztec king at the time, was taken hostage and the entire empire lay down without rebellion when Hernan Cortes entered the walls of the empire with this Spanish explorers. He ruled, unchallenged, for a period of about six months. In his absence, though, one of his officers massacred 200 hundred well respected Aztec nobles. This caused the Aztecs do rebel, and they forced the Spanish outside the gates of their empire in a fierce battle. Montezuma himself was killed in this battle. But his two successors to the throne did not do much good for the empire, and eventually another raid by Cortes and the Spanish brought an end to the Aztec empire. ²
The Inca Empire was a hugely successful empire that ruled in Central and South America for many years. Their origins came from a group of nomads that lived in southern Peru during the 13th Century. They began as a warlike tribe, and were based near Lake Titicaca. After living their for many years, ten of their clans, or allyus were lead down by a leader into Cuzco. Their empire officially began when they successfully defeated the other groups of people who were living in the valley of Cuzco. These victories ensured that their empire would stretch for a distance of forty kilometers. This land area was further increased when they defeated the Chancas. After this battle Cuzco was created into the capital city of the Incas, and their civilization continued to grow from this point.
One part of Inca society that allowed them to conquer lands so successfully was the way they treated the people that they eventually conquered. When a new territory was added into the Inca empire, the people of that territory were allowed to continue practicing their own customs, speaking their own language, and could keep their religion for a period of time. But the officials of that territory were ordered to learn Quechua (the Inca language). 4
Overtime the Incas formed a unique culture that was different from all others around it. They had three major classes in their society. There was the emperor who thought himself to be like a god, and ruled with divine authority. No one was to question his judgment or to rebel against him. The aristocracy of the Incan civilization consisted of all the emperor’s relatives and descendants. These people were the ones that usually got the most important job in the government and elsewhere in the empire as well.
The Incans may not have had a written system of language, but they all shared one common spoken language. Quechua was their language, and it is unique from every other language in the area. It is still spoken by many people in the country of Peru. 4
The Incan society was based on the allyu. The allyu was a group of families lived together as one. The different families had to have at least one ancestor in common between them all. These families did everything together. Every person belonged to a particular allyu, as you were born into it, and you died in the same allyu. No one in the allyu was too much more powerful than anyone else. No one own land, they were only loaned the land for the period of a year for their personal use.4 When the year was over, the land was re divided depending on whether the number of people living in the allyu had increased or decreased. 5
Different classes in the Inca society had varying daily lives. The emperor lived a life of gold, silver, and other riches. Despite his luxurious lifestyle, he did sleep on the floor like everyone else in his empire did. These emperors usually ended up having hundreds of wives, but those were for pure pleasure. His sister was usually named his chief wife, and that made sure that the next in line to be ruler would be his own family, and the throne never left his own flesh and blood relatives. This greed was present and noticeable throughout the Inca Empire, and it probably was there in other civilizations and cultures as well. Royals never dared to marry outside the family. And even if a particular man or woman fell in love with someone that was not a relative that marriage would be forbidden, especially if the marriage was set to stretch social classes. A person from the lower class could not even dream of marrying someone from the upper class, or vice versa. That was thought to be of a great insult to any noble family and was never allowed by the parents. 5
The poor people generally had a poor lifestyle, which was expected. Most of these people were soldier-farmers. They would all farm and irrigate the fields. This was an order from the emperor to all of his people. Most of the crops they managed to grow were only enough to feed their entire family. Whatever was left was given to the government as a tax. Many people who did not have the necessary crops to pay the tax were ordered into labor. They would, along with other poor people, create roads, temples, forts, or royal residences for the emperor of the empire. The farmers of the Inca Empire were also expected to fight in the army or do battle whenever they were called upon by the Inca emperor. 4
The empire was divided into four quarters, or suyus. Each suyu (quarter) was ruled by a governor who was from the emperor’s family. It was his job to make sure law and order was maintained in that region and they would then report back everything to the emperor. These peasants were also busy creating a vast, complicated system of roads. These roads were created for helping messengers, so that they could deliver messages at a quicker speed from one part of the empire to another. Since there was no other route, land had to be used, and it had to be improved. Building large roads was the only way of doing that. A lot of labor was needed to build the roads, and many of the people working there were like slaves, as they were forced into the work. 5
The Inca’s political affairs were kept very secret and had a complex nature to them as well. Since the Incas had not managed to invent writing and did not have an alphabet they used a quipu. The quipu was a string which had several beads placed on it. The different colors, shapes, and positions of the beads signified different amounts of money. They could also stand for other values, depending on the situation. This was a very advanced and well-thought of system and it generally worked very well. But the only problem was that only selective people could read and understand what the quipu meant, and so not everyone had the privilege of using this method of keeping records. The specific people who had this honor were known as quipu-camayocas. They were the ones given the responsibility to insure that all Inca achievements, historical occasions, and other records were kept intact, and nothing was put into the records incorrectly or at the wrong place. Each governor of the suyu’s had a personal quipu-camayoca. The population and soldiers of this particular suyu were kept in records by that person. 4
The Incan emperor also made sure there were many monuments, temples, and buildings created in honor of their many gods. These landmarks were usually very expensive to create, and required a lot of people working on them for a long period of time. 5 The Temple of the Sun that had been created was one of the greatest achievements during the Inca Empire. It was made in honor of the sun god and had been constructed almost entirely of gold. The temple was huge, and is still today seen as a monument that represents the Incan art and architecture. 4
The Inca religion was very similar to that of other civilizations in the area that ruled in that time period. They believed in polytheism, which is the belief that there is more than one god. Out of all these gods, Viracocha was their most important god. He was thought of as the creator god and the majority of sacrifices the Incas carried out were for in honor of Viracocha. All natural features and recourses had gods in the Inca religion, such as Inti, the sun god. These gods were worshipped regularly by the Incas. The huaca was the most important part of the Inca religion. A huaca was anything that could be considered a magical or religious object. It could be anything from a river to a stone. A temple or any natural site was usually considered a huaca by the Inca people. The Inca religion also consisted of a few simple customs that all Inca people were required to follow. They were Amua sua, ama or Do not steal, do not lie, and do not be lazy. These were considered very important to the Inca people and they became the basic code of conduct for any Inca citizen. Everyone was expected to follow, and there were no exceptions. 4
The Inca’s believed in an afterlife, and treated the people who died almost as well as they treated the huaca. If the royal emperor or king died, he was still attended to as if he were still alive. Servants would be present and would attend to his many daily problems, even though he was dead. Huge, magnificent tombs were created for the kings to bury them. The common people of the empire were not as fortunate as the rich kings, and so they did not have the resources to create magnificent temples to bury their dead. But, they still buried the deceased in shrines. Mourning occurred for a long period of time, as people would wear black clothes for a year in memory, and women cut their hair in the deceased person’s memory. 4
There were many great achievements that can be associated with the Inca Empire. Despite the fact that they were unable to create any suitable written alphabet, there was much more to the Inca Empire than such failures. Their architecture is the most famous, and Machu Picchu is a terrific example of that. Machu Picchu is a famous Inca city that was located on a ridge between two mountain peaks. It covers an area of thirteen square kilometers in total. It mainly consists of one story houses that are a perfect model of architecture. The clay bricks that were used were all the same uniform size, and that shows great architectural minds. There was also a system of courts in which the more important people of the village worked. A few massive religious monuments were also present in the city. This city also has special significance because it was the final refuge for most Inca people who were escaping the Spanish conquistadors. The Spanish themselves never had the good fortune of discovering the city.
The Inca Empire lasted for almost 100 years, but a decline in this great civilization was inevitable. This occurred when the Spanish arrived into the area in search of gold, loot, plunder, and any other riches that they could find. When the first European person arrived in the Inca Empire, many invasions occurred. This was around 1525 AD. The Inca ruler at the time died due to some European disease and so did his appointed heir. This triggered a mass revolt, and a huge struggle for power. This left the Inca Empire powerless and helpless to any European invasions. After about 40 years of fighting the Spanish, in 1572, a very determined attempt by the Spanish to conquer the Incas finally succeeded and the last of the Inca emperors was captured and later killed. Every last bit of gold was stolen from within the walls of the Inca Empire by the greedy Spanish, and nothing valuable was left to rest. The Incas can be given some credit, though. They did not lie down and let the Spanish conquer them. There were many fierce battles in which the Incan army and citizens fought bravely. But eventually, a mixture of the Spanish warriors, European diseases, being outnumbered, and having no leader, resulted in the Inca Empire being defeated once and for all by the Spanish. 5
The Maya Empire was another great civilization that once ruled the area of South and Central America. Their rule came before that of the Incas, yet they are still considered one of the most advanced and prosperous civilizations of the area.
One difference between the Mayas and the Incas and Aztecs is the fact that they took a longer period of time to mature and develop into a successful civilization. At first most of the Mayan people were farmers that lived in scattered communities. Their farming techniques were basic, simple, and not very effective. Yet they still managed to farm enough for the entire community to survive on. 7
The Mayan society went through different stages. At first there was the Preclassical Period in which development was slow, and society was not as complex as in the height of their empire. The basic of this empire were, nonetheless, built during this time period. At the time of AD 300, the Classical Period began when the different tribes in the Mayan empire combined. This can be considered the golden age, or height of the empire. After 600 years of dominant rule, a small decline occurred in the Maya empire, and what emerged from that is now known as the Postclassical Period. These three periods will now be explained in further detail. 7
The population of the Mayan empire began to increase as they settled into various settlements. This also required for farming to be improved because a lot more people had to be fed and supported. Over a period of time, the Aztecs achieved a great deal in farming. They were able to successfully create several unique techniques for fertilizing their soil. Possibly their biggest agricultural achievement was the fact that they were able to turn their land area of marshy swamps and steep hill slopes into abundant fields that were perfect for farming. Mayan farmers grew a variety of different crops, including maize, squash, beans, cotton, cacao, avocado, as well as other tropical fruits. Some Mayan people were also hunters or fishers. They would generally hunt turkeys, rabbits, or deer. These animals were usually killed and then boiled into a stew. Some animals such as dogs and ducks were kept by the Mayans as domesticated animals. 7
Mayan sculptures are also a major achievement of their civilization. They made many different items and sculptures including jade carvings, clay figures, and other stone tools. Baskets and mats were also made by the men and these items were very useful in the homes of the Mayan people. Cotton or leaves from a maguey plant were used by women in the Maya Empire to weave ponchos, loincloths for the men, and skirts for themselves. Women also created pottery vessels from clay strands. 7
In the preclassical period, the Mayan society had a simple structure. They lived in relatively small settlements which were headed by a chief leader, who was followed and respected by all. The leaders of the tribe were usually one family, and the title of chief was passed on from one person to another in the family. The chiefs were believed that they had exceptional skills in politics, and also had the ability to communicate with the Mayan gods. This is why they believed they had the right to rule their particular tribe. There were, of course, classes in their society. There were rich and poor in the Mayan society, but a structure of social classes was not established during the preclassical period. At this point there were not many divisions between the rich and the poor, but the beginnings for social classes were evident. 7
The Mayan religion during the preclassical period was based on their agriculture. The rain god as well as the corn god was two of the major gods worshipped by the Mayas. The religion was very basic and did not take shape until much later. 7
Many people believe that the preclassical period was just a basic platform of society, and that all achievements took place during the classical period. Those people are incorrect. Many stunning sites such as gigantic pyramids were built during this time period. 7
As the population of the Maya Empire increased by a greater amount, some major changes took place. The time period was AD 300, and the Maya Empire advanced to the next stage. Both the northern and southern highlands of the Maya Empire united and cooperation between the two finally began. 7
As this occurred, the social classes of the Maya empire continued to spread and isolate from each other. This way a social structure was formed. The rich people became the class of nobles, and that class usually included the ruler, or ruling family of the Maya Empire. They were completely isolated and separated from the other classes in the empire, and stood over the common people. The kings now ruled a much larger land area, and their influence applied to many more people than before. These kings also served as priests in the empire, and both politics and religion was headed by the Maya ruler. Each king ruled around about an area of 800 square miles, although some areas were slightly larger.
Maya cities all consisted of a basic structure, even though some were much larger than others. All the buildings and houses were constructed around one central plaza. All the major buildings of the empire consisted of murals of religious or cultural scenes that carried particular significance. The outside of these buildings quite often contained a mosaic of a particular important god. These buildings were often the homes of noble people in the Maya Empire. Turkey, duck, deer and balche were the major food dishes that were served by nobles when they entertained guests. An unusual part of their culture was that a woman’s hairstyle would tell the fact of whether she was married or not. This is something that was not followed in other societies and civilizations. 7
During the classical period, the poor people were still farmers, and grew the same basic foods to feed themselves. All extra food was sold to merchants or traders, who took it on from there. Merchants suddenly gained a lot of importance in Mayan society, and became quite successful. Trade was crucial to the Mayas, and they traded mostly salt, obsidian, cacao, jade, animal pelts, luxury ceramics, and feathers from tropical birds. Trade was especially in abundance between the people of the northern highlands and those from the southern highlands. Traders from the north brought tools, weapons, grinding stones, green parrot feathers, cochineal (a red dye), and jade. This was traded for salt, cotton feathers, wax, honey, and dried fish. At this time there were two simple ways of trading. Goods were either bartered between the two sets of people, or they were exchanged for cacao beans, which was a form of currency used in the Maya empire. These merchants often gained a lot of wealth, and so continued to widen the gap between the rich noble class and the class of poor people. 7
The Mayan society also consisted of slaves. These slaves were either common criminals, captives that were captured in battle, or incredibly poor common people that were bought and sold by merchants during trade. These slaves served their masters for life, and were killed when their masters died so that they could serve their master during the afterlife as well. 7
The Maya religion during the classical period became a lot more complicated and complex than it had been during the pre-classical period. Their chief god was Hunab Ku, and he was thought of as the creator of the world. He was so important that there were no figures of him to worship, as they felt he was a much higher class than that. 7
Many rituals and ceremonies were performed to honor their gods. Human sacrifices, commonly of slaves, were also performed regularly, as slaves were not given particular importance. When the gods were unhappy, destruction would occur in the Maya Empire, and when they were satisfied, there was growth and prosperity. 7
The Mayans achieved something that even the Incas could not manage. They invented a system of writing, and that was probably one of their greatest achievements. The system was hieroglyphical and astronomical and calendrical calculations were often done in this form. All geographic and historic documents, statistics, and achievements were also written down so that they were not forgotten. These hieroglyphics were carved on stone and wooden blocks all around the Maya Empire7
By the time AD 790 came around, the Maya civilization of the lower highlands came to an eventual end. All their monuments, temples, and buildings were destroyed, and it seems that people decided to move out of the area, and live elsewhere. The true reason of this massive migration is not fully known to archeologists around the world. A massive disease or a natural disaster seems to be the two possible causes, because an entire prospering civilization would not migrate away from their homes without any particular reason. 7
The post classical period was very similar to the classical period, except for the fact that trade between the higher and the lower highlands was not possible. Some of the major differences were that cities and areas were now ruled by a single priest or a team of priests. They would conduct all the religious affairs of the community as well as running the other parts of society. This was not a feature in the Classical period where the king and noble class had the highest authority. In other cities there was a strong sense of military rule, and generals would rise through the ranks into more powerful and influential positions in the social structure of these cities. 7
The Mayan Empire, in the post-classical period, consisted of many large cities, which developed in different ways from each other. they had some similarities of course, but there were prominent differences. Chichén Itzá was the largest and greatest city of this time period, and was located towards the northern part of the Yucatán Peninsula. The social structure of Chichén Itzá was especially evident, because of the fact that military generals and officers would earn wealth through battles and would climb their way up the social ladder. 7
Chichén Itzá itself was a huge city, ranging to about 5 square kilometers in size, which for the time period, is a very large land area. The city is a model of advanced architecture and shows us exactly how skilled the Maya were in building monuments. The main buildings in the area of the city were the Pyramid of Kukulkán, the Temple of the Warriors and the Ball Court. The arts of the Mayas also advanced greatly during this time period. Their pottery, though, became much similar, and was created in a single color instead of the multicolored pottery items. The rich people benefited from this improvement in arts as their jewelry became more valuable and before. Gold, copper, turquoise, and onyx were all used to make jewelry. The post-classical period was also a period of a great increase in wealth for all Maya merchants. They traded goods to a greater market and made a better living out of it as well. Many small port-cities had also been formed in the Maya Empire. Traders from all over Mexico and South America came to these areas and traded with the Maya. This meant that not only did the Maya trade successfully amongst themselves; they also involved other empires in the trading system. This system of trading also led to an increase in their military soldiers, due to the fact that their trading routes had to be protected. The Maya had to be secure that they were not in danger of losing all their wealth and riches to other empires or tribes. 7
However, this wealth, richness, and prosperity did not last forever in Chichén Itzá. In 1221 Mayapán conquered the glorious city of Chichén Itzá, and became the greatest city in the northern part of the Maya Empire. The two major differences between the two cities were that Mayapán was home to a lot more people, and so had a larger population. It was also surrounded by boundary walls in protection from any military attacks. The city was well protected and was never threatened either. 7
In 1511, the Maya empire was invaded by the Spanish conquistadors. This opened Spain’s eyes to another great civilization and an outpost for more wealth and riches. After three or four successful invasions in 1697 they successfully achieved their aim of dominating and conquering the entire Maya region. The majority of the Maya population was killed in battle, or by European diseases. The few people that were left of this magnificent civilization were forced to work as slaves in Spanish farms or in their gold mines. 7
The Maya Empire was a remarkable civilization which went through many stages of growth and development. They matured into one of the greatest civilizations of this area, but were subdued by the Spanish in the very end. A fantastic few centuries of Maya rule was destroyed by the Spanish who only took a 100 or so years to wipe out their entire population. The Maya Empire may be long gone, but their legacy still lives. 7
The Aztecs, Incas, and Mayas ruled the Americas for hundreds of years. They were influenced from the past and they influenced the future of the area. Their origins were similar in a special way. These civilizations all started of as small tribes or groups of peoples that migrated from one area into Central and South America. Over the years they destroyed all sources of resistance and stamped their authority on the region. Their cultures and civilizations are remembered by many people even until now. These civilizations will always remain in my mind as the greatest ever. I learned a lot from doing this research report and I hope you learn just as much from reading it.
Ancient Kingdoms of the Sun pgs 59-63
Encarta Encyclopedia Article (Aztecs)
Collier’s Encyclopedia Volume 3 pgs. 412-416 (Article: Aztecs)
Collier’s Encyclopedia Volume 12 pgs. 550-553(Article: Incas)
Encarta Encyclopedia (Article: Inca Empire)
Encarta Encyclopedia (Article: Machu Pichu)
Encarta Encyclopedia (Article: Maya Civilization)
Collier’s Encyclopedia Volume 15 pgs. 577-584 (Article: Mayas)
Website: Chichen Itza, Mexico
