These important differences have been summarised by ‘maccoby and jacklin’ and are as follows:
- Boys are more aggressive from two years on
- Males show higher levels of dominance from pre-school on
- Males from adolescence onwards are superior in visualising spatial relationships
- Males from adolescence generally demonstrate superior mathematical reasoning
- Boys show more confidence about undertaking new tasks
- Girls show faster language development in the first two years
- Girls show superior verbal reasoning
- Girls from adolescence are more fluent with words
- Girls achieve higher grades through school years
If there are differences in both male and female behaviour, how has this happened? As I mentioned earlier, much of the debate on this topic centres on the nature/nurture debate. It is possible that the differences between the sexes have their basis in biological factors, and that the obvious anatomical and physiological differences between male and female results in their behavioural differences.
However, social learning theorists suggest that it is society, through the medium of schools, media etc, which produces behavioural differences, not biology. We learn ways of thinking, feeling and acting from being socialised in gender appropriate behaviour. Alternatively, Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory is placed somewhere between the two. He suggests that it is through coming to terms with sexual feelings (biological urges) during early childhood that the child comes to identify with a particular gender.
Freud argues that children of approximately 4 yrs of age enters the phallic stage of psycho-sexual development, and begins to experience conflict between an unconscious desire for the opposite sex parent and fears of the consequences if the other parent finds out. He named this the Oedipus conflict in a boy and Electra conflict in a girl.
Freud maintains that to avoid this conflict the boy identifies with his father and proceeds to adopt his behaviour, speech and attitudes. The reasons for this are twofold, firstly it reassures his father who wont then harm him and secondly it allows him to become closer to his mother in a non-threatening enviroment. So through identifying with his father the boy internalises male characteristics and gender identity is formed. The Electra conflict generally works on the same principles, the girl has unconscious sexual feelings for her father but fearing rejection by the mother begins to adopt her characteristics which in turn form the basis of her female role and identity.
A major criticism of Freud’s work is that there is very little empirical evidence to support his claims. Cross-cultural studies show that not all cultures have children raised by a mother and father. For instance in the Trobriand islands, Malinowski found that children are raised by the mother and her brother, clearly the rivalry of the Oedipus conflict does not arise but the boys still acquire their male role. Also according to Freud children brought up in single parent or homosexual families would have difficulty in acquiring their gender role and identity, yet there is no evidence of this?
Social learning theory accepts that genes and hormones determine physical sex differences, but does not accept that they control behavioural differences. Behaviour is seen as being learned from society through the process of reinforcement and modelling (imitation). Complex behaviours such as sex role behaviour can be learned through what is termed vicarious reinforcement which is were we are more likely to copy a behaviour if we have seen others rewarded for that same behaviour.
It has become an accepted fact that boys and girls are treated differently in our society as many studies provide evidence to support this view. For example Beverly Fagot in her detailed studies of children in the USA found that children are actively shaped by their parents into their gender roles. This begins as early as 18 months with parents choosing different types of toys and initiating appropriate play activities. Siegal also provides evidence that fathers seem particularly concerned about girlish behaviour in their sons.
Social learning theorists have also used the evidence from cross-cultural studies such as those of Margaret Mead to support their view. Mead found striking differences in the behaviours of males and females in different societies e.g. (the Tchambuli tribes reversed sex-role behaviour) not at all as would be expected in biological theory.
There is some research which does not support the social learning theory and suggests that that the basis of gender difference may be biological. This evidence includes Animal Studies- experiments can be carried out on animals that would be unethical in humans.W.C.Young injected a pregnant female monkey with the male hormone testosterone. After birth the female infant showed many male traits such as aggression. In another study on the effects of hormones on humans John Money conducted a case study were two girls mothers were given male hormones during pregnancy and found the results were consistent with the animal research.
The cognitive development explanation of gender is articulated by Lawrence Kohlberg who believes that gender role is part of the mental concept of self and is acquired through the gradual maturation and learning of cognitive skills. Kohlberg sees the child’s understanding of sex and gender roles as developing like other aspects of cognitive development, through a series of stages. The important difference between Kohlbergs theory and the social learning theory is that Kholberg sees the imitation of the members of your own sex as the result, not the cause of gender role development. Children only really begin to imitate same-sex models once they understand that they are boys or girls i.e. the acquisition of gender identity and in turn gender constancy.
However this theory is unable to explain why there are individual differences in conformity to gender roles and in particular why boys show more concern with conforming than girls. Also there is no explanation on why children show differences in choices of both toys and playmates before gender constancy has developed.
In conclusion it would appear that no singular theory could fully explain how each individual acquires their gender identity. As social learning theory has a much stronger cognitive content its explanation is closely aligned to the cognitive development explanation. Apart from Freud’s explanation there is a strong suggestion that social factors play a major part in promoting gender differences. There is a multitude of research and data on the subject but little conclusive evidence. Aggression seems to be the most marked and persistent behavioural difference between the “sexes” but even this varies from culture to culture.
