Verstehen has various criticisms. It is possible that observation may be influenced by personal bias. Direct observation also requires prior knowledge of the culture being studied. Also, Verstehen assumes that people in society rationally consider their actions, which may not always be the case.
Weber believed that class would diversify (instead of the polarisation that Marx predicted) and that society would become increasingly fragmented. He thought that ownership of goods, wealth or skills were more important than the ownership of the means of production. These properties could be exchanged for money in the economic market – he was of the opinion that this position in the economic market place determined class position so that in theory there would be as many class positions as economic positions. Therefore the class structure of society is essentially an occupation structure.
Social action theory recognises other divisions apart from simply class and also recognises that consumption of goods (by which status groups are stratified) is just as important as the production (by which class is stratified). It also draws attention to the importance of the individual and their conscious actions. It does not however place enough emphasis on class divisions, as it tends to concentrate more on status.
Symbolic interactionists reject structure and believe that to study society, the only way to do so is to concentrate on the individual. Both theories believe in understanding the individual through the use of empathy.
George Herbert Mead was mainly concerned with the importance of language. Language distinguishes humans from animals and allows us to be aware of our individuality. The use of symbols is a key element of language. They are used to give meanings to particular events or objects and are learned by socialisation. Humans make them to assist them to interact in a social and natural environment. Symbols give meaning to the way people perceive objects and events, essentially creating the world and the position of humans within it.
Another sociologist, Harold Garfinkel, believed that conversation was one of the most important factors in everyday life and that by studying language and its context, the actions and methods of the individuals could be understood.
Mead also developed a theory of self-concept. He believed that the self could be defined as a combination of two aspects, the 'I' and 'Me'. 'Me' is a social construct or your interpretation of yourself in a specific social role. The 'I' is the self's inner core and what you think of yourself as a whole.
The 'Me' is the socialised self, which is constructed during childhood by trying to copy the role of the mother or father. It modifies the individual to appear more acceptable in the eyes of others, promoting social acceptance. The 'I' has a considerable influence over the individuals behaviour. Without any self-awareness the individual would be unable to act or react within human society.
Erving Goffman devised a theory concerning social roles. He observed that individuals adopt various roles throughout life. By responding to the reactions of others, the individual will either adopt or discard a role which they deem to be acceptable to others.
He conducted a study of a mental institution where he monitored the behaviour of its inhabitants using a method of participation observation. He observed that the identity of the individual was take by the institution, as they have neither personal possessions nor the freedom to dress as they wished. Effectively, a new self was replacing the old self and this Goffman called the mortification of the self.
The inhabitants of the institution suffered from an identity crisis and they used certain methods of adaptation in order to adjust. Goffman concluded that the individual is a series of masks, or other selves, and the true self is only revealed when the individual is solitary.
Howard Becker developed the label theory by originally studying crime and deviance. He was interested in discovering the causes and consequences of labelling individuals as criminals or deviants. He discovered that individuals are often labelled by society. These labels define the individual as a specific type of person and this may have various consequences. The label may eventually become a master status as other people assume the individual possesses the characteristics of the label. In turn, this stigmatisation may produce a self-fulfilling prophecy. This occurs when the individual believes they are as the label suggests and begin to adopt the associated characteristics.
Symbolic interaction emphasises the individuals role and recognises that understanding the interpretation which individuals place on a person or situation is essential to the understanding of their subsequent actions. It does however tend to exaggerate the extent to which people consciously interpret situations – a lot of actions take place on automatic pilot almost, often out of habit.
Bibliography
Dictionary of Sociology, N. Abercrombie, S. Hill & B.S. Turner, Pengiuin Books Ltd, 1994
Introducing Sociology, R. Osbourne & B. Van Loon, Icon Books UK, 1999
Sociology class notes
Sociology Themes and Perspectives, Haralambos and Holborn, HarperCollins Publishers Ltd, 2000
The New Introducing Sociology, Peter Worsley et al, Penguin Books Ltd, 1992
The Students Companion to Sociology, C. Ballard, J. Gubbay & C. Middleton, Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 1997
