Environmental Mangement - Upland Burning in Ireland and the Effects of the Heritage Bill 2016.

by davidmcgillygmailcom (student)

Wildlife Biology 2017

Introduction

Wildfire management programs are responsible for analyzing and providing information on wildfires and implementing measures to prevent their occurrence and spread. Information regarding weather, fuel and fire behavior can help monitors predict future wild fires and their associated risk (Wade & Lundsford, 1989). Evaluating wildfire behavior and its effects are essential for protecting wildlife and implementing management plans. Understanding the effects of fire on the soil, vegetation and wildlife are essential in developing best practice management plans (Ryan & Noste, 1985).

Environmentalists however, generally dislike the trend of prescribed fires as a management tool. This is because prescribed fires are not always beneficial to the landscape and the regional wildlife. Under unfavourable conditions, prescribed fires can severely damage the very resource it was intended to benefit. There are also concerns over the level to which these fires contribute to air pollution.

Not all Environmentalists oppose to prescribed burns, but believe that there is too much reliance on them and very little research conducted on the benefits and impacts it has on the landscape over the long-term. Residents and landowners in forested upland areas on the other hand become concerned about the amounts of potential fuel present in the uplands. With proper management and data collection, a well-planned burn can reduce these potential fire hazards and even improve habitats from a wildlife point of few (C. Nugent, Personal Communication, 2017).

The Heritage Bill 2016

Introduced by the Minister for Arts, Heritage, Regional, Rural and Gaeltacht Affairs Heather Humphreys, the primary purpose of the Heritage Bill 2016 is to amend the Heritage Act 1995 and make provisions for the regulation for the burning and cutting of vegetation. The Heritage Bill 2016 will also Acts amend and extend the Wildlife Act 1976 and outline the powers issued to the authorized bodies under the Act. Provisions will also be made in the Bill to amend the Canals Act 1986 (Department of Arts, Heritage and the Gaeltacht, 2016). The Bill comes as a manifestation of the Irish Government’s poor record in listening to the cohorts of people who value our natural heritage. This is evident in the lack of scientific rationale to support these changes (birdwatchireland, 2017).

The Bill introduces many poor aspects that have caused debates and outrage in within the Irish community, including environmental activists, wildlife groups, farmers and the general public. The Bill overturns the protection of roadside hedgerows, threatening these unique habitats and wildlife corridors. Another major concern regarding wildlife is the proposed extensions to the dates for burning in the uplands and hedge cutting. The proposed changes will have a significantly negative impact on wildlife, in particular breeding birds (See Fig 1) (birdwatchireland, 2017).

The current Wildlife Amendment Act, protected against the destructive and intrusive nature of burning and hedge cutting (See Fig 7 and App. Fig 12). Although often under-enforced, the Act created a framework for the protection of breeding birds. The new legislation will weaken the current laws set in place to protect breeding birds and other biodiversity. At present, the burning of vegetation or cut hedges between September 1st to February 28th/29th each year. The new bill proposes to change these dates to allow burning and hedge cutting to run from August through to March. This will extend and cutting season by one month into August and extend the burning season by one month into March. The extensions as a result will directly correlate with the nesting periods of birds. Wildlife experts have outlined the potential negative affects these changes will have on the breeding bird populations (House of the Oireachtas, 2017).

Hedgerows provide both a source of food and habitat for a number of common bird species for roosting and nesting 55 bird species of the 110 species recorded regularly in Birdwatch Ireland's Countryside Bird Survey use them during the breeding season (Coombes, et al., 2006). This includes Emberiza citrinella (yellowhammer) (See Fig 2) and Linaria cannabina (linnet), two species that have significantly declined in population across Ireland.

Fires in the uplands can have a significant influence on the rates of erosion and distribution of biodiversity determining the overall habitat characteristics (Davies, et al., 2008). Wildfires destroy the food stores and nesting sites of birds and other wildlife. Large-scale wild fires can also lead to the destruction of millions of euro worth of forestry and family homes. For many bird species, including the endangered and iconic Numenius arquata (Curlew) (See Fig 3) whose populations are in serious decline (125 remaining pairs in Ireland), Numenius arquata nest in Mooreland’s during the month of March and prepare to lay their eggs (Working Notes, 2013). Upland fires during this period could potentially eradicate future breeding sites and wipe out there populations entirely.

Wild Fires Vs Prescribed Fires

Wildfire refers to any uncontrolled or unplanned wildland fire that, regardless of its ignition source, requires a response (e.g. suppression) (Davies, et al., 2008). The occurrence intensity and size of a wildfire depend greatly on several variables including the present vegetation species, their moisture content and the biomass of consumable fuel available. Under certain environmental (Dry and Windy) and fuel conditions, wildfires can spread quickly resulting in large-scale damages.

A Prescribed fire is a managed wildland fire or a wildfire that burns within an outlined prescription area. Prescribed fires are confined to a predetermined target ...

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Wild Fires Vs Prescribed Fires

A Prescribed fire is a managed wildland fire or a wildfire that burns within an outlined prescription area. Prescribed fires are confined to a predetermined target area and exhibit the characteristic fire behavior patterns to achieve a predetermined treatment of an area (Davies, et al., 2008). Prescribed fires are used as a land management technique, used under controlled conditions, to accomplish natural resource management objectives. Prescribed fires are one of several land treatment techniques, including mechanical and chemical treatment techniques. Prescribed fires must be conducted within the limits of a fire management plan and acceptable under the present fuel, weather and fire behavior parameters to achieve the desired effect.

The Irish Fire Warning System

The Forest Fire Risk Warning System in Ireland issues circulars periodically during the wildfire risk season from the month of February through to July. These warnings provide forest manager and owners with an advanced warning of high-risk weather conditions, and authorize the appropriate mitigation measures to be taken prior to fire outbreaks (DAFM), 2015).

Warnings are based on the outputs of the daily Met Eireann Fire Weather Index and European Forest Fire Information System (EFFIS) in conjunction with additional processing and analysis carried out by the Forest Service, and other relevant stakeholders. The warning system uses a colour coded map (scale from Green through to Red) and conforms to standard practice in weather based risk forecasting (DAFM), 2015).

Condition Green – Low Fire Risk Conditions

Green status indicates that the fire hazard conditions are low, with a minimal rate of wildfire risk and spread. During green status, prescribed burning operations often take place, for the removal of hazardous vegetation in close proximity to assets especially around protective forestry’s and properties.

Condition Yellow – Moderate Hazard Alert.

Yellow alert is set as the default condition during the main wildfire risk period (March to September). Farmers practicing upland management and forestry owners should be aware of the existing fire risk during this status. Under this status, upland vegetation is expected to burn with a moderate flame and predictable rate of spread (C. Nugent, Personal Communication, 2017). However, wind conditions and the relative humidity can result in an unpredictable rate of spread and increased flame heights leading to difficulties in managing these fires. Yellow status indicates a moderate fire hazard condition, which does not pose any immediate threat to the general population. Those however situated in fire prone landscapes should be aware of the risks posed and take action to remove or reduce hazardous vegetation in close proximity to fuel storage areas and homes.

Condition Orange – High Fire Risk.

Orange status alerts are set in areas of high fire risk conditions generally derive from extended periods of moderate relative humidity, moderate westerly wind and low precipitation. These conditions significantly increase the risk and spread of wildfire. Orange level warnings may also be derive from patterns of human activity that increase the existing fire risk such as upland traditional burning patterns and during holiday periods that may bring high levels of visitors onto lands at risk of wildfire. Orange warning status implies that people situated in affected areas should prepare accordingly for fire outbreaks. During Orange status status, fire suppression personnel should be notified to prepare for the likelihood of a fire occurrence. Fire plans, maps and equipment should be checked and ready for use in the event of a fire.

Condition Red – Extreme Fire Risk.

Red status alerts are set during extreme Fire risk conditions. Red status conditions derive from dry periods with persistent low humidity winds, which in turn dry out vegetation rapidly inducing high levels of fire risk. These conditions combined support wildfire propagation and spread. An ignition of hazardous vegetation in upland areas during Red alert conditions can give rise to rapid and unpredictable fires. Red alert status implies that recipients take immediate action to protect resources and property from fire. Land managers, landowners and local authorities are advised to implement and enforce the relevant fire protection legislation. Residents in high-risk areas should also implement a high degree of vigilance and prepare for evacuation if advised by the Local Authorities.

Prescribing fire in landscape management

Prescribed fires in certain circumstances can be the most practical way to reduce the risk of large wildfires. The appropriate interval between prescribed burns varies with several factors, including the past wildfire occurrence, fuel accumulation rates, the risk of a fire and the values at risk. In general, prescribed fires are implemented on a 3-4 year cycle. There are several reasons for using prescribed burning as a tool in landscape management.

A single well planned and managed prescribed burn can achieve multiple benefits (Wade & Lundsford, 1989). Prescribed fire is a complex management tool, and should be used only under controlled conditions after extensive research has been conducted on the possible impacts of the burn.

A build-up of vegetation can potentially pose a serious threat for wildfire. Wildfires that occur in areas, which have been managed using prescribed burns, result in less overall damage. The need to reduce hazardous fuel accumulations surrounding forestry plantations is critical (C. Nugent, Personal Communication, 2017). Without fuel reduction in these areas, fire hazard is extremely high. The initial hazard-reduction burn requires exacting conditions of humidity, wind, and temperature to insure objectives will be achieved and safety measures are adhered too (Nugent, n.d.).

Prescribed fires also remove the residue from logging practices, controls disease, maintain natural succession of flora communities, and reduce the need for herbicide and pesticide use. Prescribed fires are a cost-effective treatment for the management of upland and forested areas. Successful wild fires reduce the occurrences of wildfires and the potential damage caused.

Prescription Fire techniques

The technique chosen should directly correlate with the burning objectives, weather factors, topography and fuel. The most appropriate technique to use can change as these factors change. Fire control techniques are often developed through practice-based knowledge in suitable burning conditions.

Backing fire

A backing fire is often the safest and easiest prescribed fire technique to use, provided wind speed and direction are suitable. A backing fire is started along a downwind controline (e.g. road, plough line) and allowed to back into the wind (C. Nugent, Personal Communication, 2017). Backing fires produce a minimum scorch as a result, the technique is predominantly used in areas with heavy fuels (e.g. young forestry stands). The slow progress of backing fires however, lead to the increased potential for feeder-root damage due to increased levels of exposure to heat (TDA, 2002). When employing a backing fire technique in large areas the area should first be divided into smaller sections using interior plow lines (usually every 100 meters). All sections must then be ignited simultaneously to reduce the available fuel source and damage to feeder-roots. Mid-flame heights and wind speeds of no more than 3 mph are desirable with backing fires (Duryea & Dougherty, 2012).

Flanking fire

The flanking fire technique requires a considerable amount of knowledge on fire behaviour, particularly if used by itself. In areas with a large fuel resource, multiple torchers are required to coordinate their efforts in order to prevent the spread of the fire. The technique comprises of setting fire lines directly into the wind to treat the target area (See Fig 9). These lines spread at right angles to the wind and burn so that the available fuel source is reduced as the fire lines spread outwards (Duryea & Dougherty, 2012). Flanking fires are sometimes used to supplement a backing fire in areas of under certain conditions (e.g. humid weather). Flanking fires are particularly useful when burning very large areas or when strip head fires are unsuitable (C. Nugent, Personal Communication, 2017).

Spot fires

Spot fires are particularly useful when burning large areas of land. The technique involves the placement of a series of fires, often producing a fire much greater than that of a backing fire. A firebreak is first established through a line-backing fire along the downwind side of the target area. Successive lines of spot fires are then set along the upwind side of the backing fire until the entire area has been covered. The spacing and timing of these individual ignition points are critical for the correct application of the technique. Continuous spatial and temporal adjustments should be made as the fire reacts to changes in weather conditions and fuel resources (Duryea & Dougherty, 2012).

Impacts of burning on wet heath habitat (HH3)

Wet heath habitat (HH3) (See Fig 10) are dynamic plant communities dominated by a high cover of sclerophyllous, ericoid shrubs, including, Erica tetralix (cross-leaved heath), Erica cinerea (bell heather) and Calluna vulgaris (ling). Many other species are also associated with these habitats, including a wide range of grasses, Molinia caerulea (Purple Moor-Grass) and Holcus lanatus (Yorkshire Fog), and dwarf shrubs such as Ulex europaeus (Gorse), Vaccinium oxycoccos (cranberry) and Vaccinium myrtillus (bilberry).

Wet heath can occur in lowland and upland areas and is widespread across the lower slopes of hills and mountains. Wet heath habitats are generally comprised of a mosaic of damp, wet and dry habitats on shallow wet acidic peaty soils with a typically average depth of 15-50 cm. (Fossitt, 2000). HH3 habitats support a wide range of rare plants and animals, some of which are extremely reliant upon heathland for breeding and other lifecycle stages. Caprimulgus europaeus (Nightjar) is a rare summer-visitor to uplands of southern Ireland and breeds in heathland habitat (See Fig 11) (birdwatchireland, 2017).

The traditional management techniques of European heathlands have perpetuated ecosystems with a low nutrient status in which succession of flora species is limited. Traditional management systems involve a complex interaction of inter alia; burning, grazing and arable cultivation. The use and combination of these management techniques vary regionally and locally (Webb, 1998).

Burning in Wet heathlands requires careful planning and consideration, particularly where less mobile species occur. Burning can be highly damaging to birds and reptile populations, and burning should be avoided on heathlands where these are present. Periodic burns generally promote the loss of heath habitat, reduce plant biomass and prevent natural succession.

Heather stands over 15 years of age are also less likely to regenerate due to the lowest living bud node being destroyed by the fire. This further diminishes the natural succession (Miller & Miles, 1970) Burning can also result in large areas of exposed bare ground and, depending on the intensity of the fire, the total removal of ground vegetation.

The removal of wet heathland vegetation can lead to increased rates of soil erosion although if undertaken in small patches, decolonization from surrounding areas may occur, increasing available habitat types and species diversity (RSBP, 2010)

Site-specific treatments of combined grazing and burning can maintain species diversity and community structure if managed correctly. Periodical prescribed burning promotes young regrowth of dead vegetation, which is more nutritious to grazing stocks, and reduces potential fire risks (Fagúndez, 2013). Correctly managed burns in wet heathland habitats with a quick passage and a low temperature, encourages heather seed germination and allows rootstock to regenerate, thus heather can be regarded as a fire adapted species (Nilsen, et al., 2005).

The maintenance of Wet heathland low soil nutrients and vegetation succession can be maintained through prescribed burning regimes (Sedláková & Chytrý, 1999). However, the periodical use of burning often creates relatively large patches of even-aged vegetation, which is typical undesirable in regards to wildlife diversity. For instance, a good range in vegetation structure from young regrowth to mature heather stands is favored by Lagopus lagopus scoticus (Red Grouse) (See Fig 12).

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