1837: Upper Canada rebels against the Family Compact (a group of officials that dominated the government- executive and legislative councils, as well as the judiciary). People were outraged over their land granting, education and economic policies. The group also showed favoritism to new immigrants from England and the Church of England. Residents of Upper Canada begin to identify themselves as Anglophone Canadians; separate from those who identify themselves as British.
1857: "Civilization of Indian Tribes” Act is passed. Under this act, First Nations men who educated themselves under the British education system or were deemed “capable of managing their own affairs” were given British citizenship and the right to vote, as well as to own property and serve on juries. However, those who did so would lose Aboriginal rights, and would no longer be identified as First Nations. This law was the first of many that encouraged First Nations to assimilate into mainstream society.
Post-Confederation:
1870: Red River Resistance and the Metis: The Metis in Saskatchewan were outraged when Canada and the Hudson’s Bay Company transferred ownership of Rupert’s land without consulting them or the other aboriginal groups that lived there. Their leader, Louis Riel created a provisional government and drafted a list of rights for the Metis. Their resistance was met with negotiations instead of arms and it was agreed that the list of rights would be considered by the Canadian government. This success helped to preserve Metis culture and contributed to Canada’s ethnic makeup. However, it also led to tensions between cultural groups (especially after Riel’s Metis council arrested members of the Canadian Party).
1880: Residential Schools and the Government: The Residential school system was set up by the Canadian government and run by churches to educate Aboriginal children, as well as instilling in them, Christian values and ways of living. It was one of the many ways the government attempted to assimilate Aboriginal groups. Children were forcibly put in these schools and isolated from their cultures. They were prohibited from speaking their first languages, and from acknowledging their heritage or history. The verbal, physical and sexual abuse encountered by Aboriginal students damaged many generations and weakened the presence of Aboriginal cultures in Canada.
1917: The Conscription Crisis during the First World War: The start of the First World War succeeded in creating a rift between the cultural groups in Canada, particularly the Anglophones and Francophones due to their conflicting interests. The war was supported by English Canada, whose residents expressed patriotism for Britain, and supported their cause in Europe. French Canada however, felt no connection to Britain or to France. They also felt that the Canadian army (which mostly consisted of English speaking Protestants) did not support their causes or their Canadian ethnic identity. When voluntary enlistment dropped, the Canadian government introduced a Conscription Bill- the Military Service Act, which made serving in the military mandatory for all male adults. This bill created outrage within Francophone communities, leading to a series of riots and protests. This contributed to Canada’s linguistic divide.
1969: The White Paper and Aboriginal Peoples: The White Paper was a piece of legislation that agreed to end the Indian Act and dissolve the relationship the Aboriginal Peoples had with the government. Ultimately, it worked towards eliminating “Indian status”, dissolving the Department of Indian Affairs, abolishing the Indian Act, and converting reserve lands to private property which the native bands could sell or own. In this way, Aboriginal citizens would be regarded simply as citizens without any special conditions or advantages (which the government considered discriminatory to other citizens). The bill was met with opposition from Native groups who viewed it as another attempt by the government to assimilate them. They argued that the concerns raised by their leaders were not addressed and Aboriginal treaty rights were ignored. Thus, the White Paper was rejected. The controversy over it however, resulted in a period of political organization among the Aboriginals. It united Frist Nations leaders from all across Canada to fight for Aboriginal rights, such as the Union of British Columbia Indian Chiefs (UBCIC).
1977: Bill 101 and Quebec: Bill 101 succeeded in making French the primary language of Quebec. French was made the official language of the courts and the province, as well as the main language of workplaces, schools, and businesses. The law also made education in the French language mandatory for all immigrants (including those from other provinces in Canada). This led to many debates, as this bill made immigration more difficult, and led to many children illegally enrolling in English language schools in Quebec. Nevertheless, Bill 101 was passed and worked to protect Francophone identity in Quebec.
Legacies of Ethnic Nationalism:
French-English Divide and the Quebec Sovereignty movement: Past events in Canada’s history have contributed to the linguistic divide that exists today between Anglophones and Francophones. Driven by ethnic nationalism, the founding peoples of Canada fought for their mother countries. Battles such as the Battle of the Plains of Abraham determined not only which of these “mother countries” secured the most land, but also which cultures most influenced Canadian identity. The French-speaking minority that exists in Canada today does not play a smaller role that the majority but has had less influence over time through events such as the expulsion of the Acadians (which weakened Francophone ties to their land and heritage). Out of all the provinces, only Quebec has a French-speaking majority with over 80%, the others having an English majority of over 90%, and New Brunswick being the only bilingual province. With the obvious cultural differences and population gap between the two groups, many in Quebec are convinced that separation from Canada will best preserve Quebecois culture, and promote their interests. However, in the referendum of 1995, this notion was rejected (although by a small margin). The result of this referendum reflects the effects of legislation such as Bill 101 and Bill 22. Both worked to promote the French language in Quebec (especially in the workplace, schools and government) and language instruction for immigrants. These have helped to add to the Francophone culture, and perhaps persuaded voters that minorities can still flourish within Canada.
Preservation of Aboriginal culture and societies: Aboriginal cultures have faced many challenges since first contact with European explorers. These include war, famine, disease, and assimilation. Many, like the Beothuk have all disappeared. But the majority of these groups are still present in large numbers, tied together by their culture and the past of their ethnic nations. Patriotism for their cultures is what drove many First Nations leaders to fight for their rights and resist the European takeover of Canada. One such First Nations leader was Pontiac, who led the most successful First Nations resistance in the history of Canada. Louis Riel was another leader who successfully organized two protests for the Metis. Besides warfare, many have expressed their opinion through words and formed groups to speak against discriminatory or unlawful documents such as the White Paper. The Assembly of First Nations is one group that actively fights for the rights of Aboriginal peoples. This type of advocacy has also encouraged he government to play its role. In 2010, the government planned to make changes to its policy so that more than 45,000 people would be recognized as status Indians. Because of events driven by ethnic nationalism, the Aboriginal culture still exists today and will exist for the foreseeable future.
Immigration and Diversity: Canada has always been a land of immigrants, from the early First Nations traveling across the Bering land bridge to the Chinese workers that came to Canada during the time of the railway. This and the events after have resulted in Canada being a diverse nation rather than one tied to a common ethnicity. The Red River resistance for example, ensured that the Metis received land rights. Opposition to the White paper, made sure that Aboriginal peoples were not marginalized. The Francophones rebelled in 1791 when they felt they were being suppressed by the English power. The English themselves attempted to assimilate the other minorities numerous times through legislation. All of these cultural groups attempted to increase their influence in Canada, although sometimes not in the most humanitarian ways. But because of the ethnic bonds that motivated the founding peoples to be patriotic, Canada has become a country where diversity is welcomed and accepted. A climate in which people of many backgrounds live together can exist.