Creation stories
An example of a Dreaming story is that of the fertility mother of the Gagudju people of Northern Australia:
Life started when a creator woman called Warramurrungundjui came out of the sea and gave birth to the first people and gave them the languages. She carried with her a digging stick and a dilly bag holding yams, waterlilies and other important plants. She planted the food and created waterholes with her digging stick on the ground. Other creator beings appeared...After completing her creative act, Warramurrungundj turned herself into a rock.
S. Breeden and B. Wright, Kakadu, Looking After the Country - the Gagadju Way
The Rainbow Serpent
John Mawurndjul, Njalyod - the rainbow serpent, 1985, natural pigments on bark. © John Mawurndjul. Licensed by VISCOPY, Australia, 2007.
The serpent as a Creation Being is perhaps the oldest continuing religious belief in the world, dating back several thousands of years. The Rainbow Serpent features in the Dreaming stories of many mainland Aboriginal nations and is always associated with watercourses, such as billabongs, rivers, creeks and lagoons. The Rainbow Serpent is the protector of the land, its people, and the source of all life. However, the Rainbow Serpent can also be a destructive force if it is not properly respected.
The most common version of the Rainbow Serpent story tells that in the Dreaming, the world was flat, bare and cold. The Rainbow Serpent slept under the ground with all the animal tribes in her belly waiting to be born. When it was time, she pushed up, calling to the animals to come from their sleep. She threw the land out, making mountains and hills and spilled water over the land, making rivers and lakes. She made the sun, the fire and all the colours.
To the Gagudju people, the Rainbow Serpent was called Almudj and was a major creator being. It forced passages through rocks and created more waterholes. Today, Almudj is still a great creator, bringing the wet season each year, which causes all forms of life to multiply, and appearing in the sky as a rainbow. But Almudj is also to be feared as he can punish anyone who has broken a law by drowning them in floods. Almudj still lives in a pool under a waterfall in Kakadu.
The Jawoyn people, of the Katherine Gorge area in the Northern Territory, tell how the Rainbow Serpent slept under the ground until she awoke in the Dreaming and pushed her way to the surface. She then traveled the land, sleeping when she tired, and left behind her winding tracks and the imprint of her sleeping body. When she had travelled the earth, she returned and called to the frogs to come out, but they were very slow because their bellies were full of water. The Rainbow Serpent tickled their stomachs and when the frogs laughed, the water flowed out of their mouths and filled the tracks and hollows left by the Rainbow Serpent, creating the rivers and lakes. This woke all of the animals and plants, who then followed the Rainbow Serpent across the land.
Stories of the stars and sky
To the peoples of the Torres Strait Islands, the Tagai, or warrior, features in most of their dreamtime stories. As the Torres Strait Islanders are sea-faring people, the stories of the Tagai usually focus on stars.
Seas and stars
One Tagai story depicts the Tagai as a man standing in a canoe. In his left hand, he holds a fishing spear, representing the Southern Cross. In his right hand, he holds a sorbi (a red fruit). In this story, the Tagai and his crew of 12 are preparing for a journey. But before the journey begins, the crew consume all the food and drink they planned to take. So the Tagai strung the crew together in two groups of six and cast them into the sea, where their images became star patterns in the sky. These patterns can be seen in the star constellations of Pleiades and Orion.
Other Aboriginal peoples also had Dreaming stories relating to the sky - stars, sun and moon. A Dreaming story from the Flinders Ranges area in South Australia tells how the pointer stars (part of the Southern Cross) came to be. Two young brothers had been hunting and decided to make a campfire when a strong wind blew up. Soon the entire mountain was on fire and the brothers ran to the top of the peak to escape the flames, but the fire caught up to them. Just as they started to burn, the ancestor beings took pity on them and gave them the gift of flight. They flew high up into the night sky, where their camp fires can still be seen today.
Lightning Brothers in the sky
Bill Harney, Lightning Dreaming (Lightning Brothers), 2001, acrylic on Galicia linen. Image courtesy of Bill Harney and Didgeridoo and Aboriginal Art Distributors.
Knowledge of the stars helped people in navigation across the land as well as the seas. Constellations of stars depict figures familiar in the Aboriginal environment like crocodiles and eagles as well as heroic figures like the Lightning Brothers from a Wardaman story.
The Lightning Brothers travelled from the Warlpiri lands of the Northern Territory, stopping at Yirindale Springs before coming to camp at their site known as Yiwalalay. During their travels, the younger brother, Yabiringi, began lusting for Kanayanda (or Gulidang), wife of his older brother, Yagjabula, which ended in a fight between the two brothers. In the Dreamtime story, the older brother is claimed to have decapitated the other with a swing from his special stone axe. Other variations of the legend say that the fight ended when the headdress was knocked off. The Lightning Brothers live in the sky-world, the dwelling place of many ancestral spirits. The brothers are depicted in rock art and paintings.
Stars and family relationships
Knowledge of the constellations or star formations also reflect the patterns for social relationships in some areas. Arrernte and Luritja 'skin groupings', which determine people's relationships to one another, are based on the constellations of the Southern Cross. The stars represent a man and a woman ideally suited in marriage, with their parents, children and other relations all marked out in the night sky.
For Warlpiri people, the ancestors broke the Milky Way (called Yiwarra) into individual stars that we see today. Some fragments fell to earth, creating sacred places. This story is re-told in paintings, song and dance as well as re-enacted in contemporary initiation ceremonies, where men wear white down on their bodies to represent the stars (Dianne Johnson, Macquarie Atlas of Indigenous Australia).
Thus, connections are made on a daily basis between ancestors, people, stars and land. The telling of the Dreaming stories reinforces knowledge about the constellations, social behaviour, land formations and sacred places.
Indigenous peoples of the World / Культура аборигенов мира
Peoples of the World Foundation logo.
The voices of Indigenous peoples, if we take the trouble to listen to them, convey priceless messages to the world: their traditions, particularly ethical and spiritual ones, coupled with their management of complex ecosystems and their know-how, all play a vital role in the search for development and peace. Safeguarding their cultures and acknowledging their rights are of strategic importance for the future of humankind.
UNESCO Culture Newsletter, 2005
UNESCO states that Indigenous populations number some 350 million individuals in more than 70 countries in the world, and that this represents more than 5000 languages and cultures. Today, many Indigenous peoples live on the fringes of society and are deprived of basic human rights, particularly cultural rights, due to dispossession and displacement from their land.
People belonging to the land
An Indigenous person is, by definition, a person belonging to the land or soil and being native to, or belonging naturally to a particular region. Indigenous identity and cultural expression is closely linked to their relationship with land areas.
It is essential to know and understand the deeply spiritual special relationship between Indigenous peoples and their land as basic to their existence as such and to all their beliefs, customs, traditions and culture... Their land is not a commodity which can be acquired, but a material element to be enjoyed freely.
Study of the Problem of Discrimination Against Indigenous Populations, J. M. Cobo, United Nations Special Rapporteur (1987)
Displacement and dispossession
Dispossession and displacement of Indigenous people has been a way of gaining territory, controlling trade and acquiring resources since the Peloponnesian War (431 - 404 BC). The consequences of this experience for Indigenous people has been variously decimation of their populations as well as oppression by the dominant culture, especially in respect of languages, traditional knowledge and customs. In Australia, for example, the population was estimated at between 500,000 and 1,000,000 people in 1788. This had declined to about 60,000 people in the 1920s.
Torres Strait Islanders
A Thursday Island Torres Strait dancer.
Image courtesy of State Library of Queensland
In Australia, Torres Strait Islanders experienced displacement after the Strait, named by the Spaniard Luiz Váez de Torres in 1606, became a sea route for ships travelling between the Australian colonies and Europe. This enabled the Islanders to extend their trade partners, but also meant European rule, culture and religion were imposed.
In the 1860s, the discovery of pearl shell and trepang (sea cucumber), a delicacy appreciated by the Chinese, brought people from all over the region to the Torres Strait Islands. By 1877, 16 pearling firms were operating on Thursday Island. The colony of Queensland recognised the value of this resource, and annexed the Islands in 1879.
The influx of settlers severely restricted the ability of the Islanders to continue their traditional lives and travels. It wasn't until 1936 that Islanders took charge of local government. In 1990 they were officially recognised as a distinct people.
In June 1992, the High Court of Australia overturned the previous concept of terra nullius which stated that, in legal terms, Australia was empty of inhabitants when it was first settled by Europeans. On this day the High Court recognised the native title rights of Eddie Mabo over his traditional land on Murray Island (Mer). Several other communities (Saibai Islanders and Mualgal people from Moa Island) have gained native title rights over their islands since the Mabo decision.
The Torres Strait Regional Authority (TSRA) was established in 1994 to allow Torres Strait Islanders to manage their own affairs according to their own ailan kastom (island custom).
United Nations Declarations
International Decade of the World's Indigenous Peoples 2005 - 2015
The United Nations declared the decade from 1994 to 2004 the International Decade of the World's Indigenous Peoples. One of the outcomes of this decade was the establishment of a Second Decade of the World's Indigenous Peoples which commenced on 1 January 2005. The purpose of the two decades of activity is to identify and raise awareness of Indigenous issues, and establish a charter of Indigenous human rights.
Logo for International Day of Indigenous People, 9 August.
The International Day of the World's Indigenous People is 9 August every year. In partnership with the United Nations and its agencies, UNESCO plays a key role in the Decade which is intended to 'strengthen international cooperation for the solution of problems faced by Indigenous people in such areas as human rights, the environment, development, education and health'.
The program of activities for the International Decade of the World's Indigenous People recognises the value and diversity of the cultures of Indigenous communities and of their specific forms of social organisation, and attaches value to the contributions that they can make to humanity.
Cultural Diversity
The UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (adopted unanimously by the 185 Member States represented at the 31st session of the General Conference in 2001 in the wake of the events of 11 September 2001) is the founding act of a new ethic being promoted by UNESCO. The purpose is to provide the international community with an instrument to move towards development and peace. This is based on the conviction that respect for cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue is one of the surest guarantees of development and peace.
The mapping of Indigenous cultural resources carried out by Indigenous communities is seen as a crucial step toward demonstrating that cultural diversity is a means of enrichment for the greater society. As such, UNESCO continues to support pilot projects at work in the field. Projects operating around the globe create numerous opportunities for interactions between knowledgeable people, Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples. Training and consultation activities in this area also benefit some of the most marginalised communities. UNESCO's Mapping of Indigenous Cultural Resources Project is intended to contribute to enhance the identity of Indigenous communities and foster a sense of multicultural citizenship.
Ludo Kuipers, Singing and clapping boomerangs together to accompany traditional dancing at a festival in Central Australia. Courtesy of OzOutback Internet Services.
In Australia, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures are complex and diverse. The Indigenous cultures of Australia have the oldest living cultural history in the world - they go back at least 50,000 years and some argue closer to 65,000 years. One of the reasons Aboriginal cultures have survived for so long is their ability to adapt and change over time. It was this affinity with their surroundings that goes a long way to explaining how Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples survived for so many millennia.
Today, Indigenous communities keep their cultural heritage alive by passing their knowledge, arts, rituals and performances from one generation to another, speaking and teaching languages, and protecting cultural property and sacred and significant sites and objects.
Intangible heritage
Intangible heritage is sometimes called living cultural heritage, and is seen in the following expressions: oral traditions, including language; performing arts; social practices, rituals and festive events; knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe; and traditional craftsmanship.
UNESCO has four major programs in the field of intangible cultural heritage:
- Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity
- Living Human Treasures
- Endangered Languages
- Traditional Music of the World
The United Nations Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage defines intangible cultural heritage as 'the practices, representations, expressions, as well as the knowledge and skills, that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals recognise as part of their cultural heritage'.
Intangible cultural heritage is transmitted from generation to generation, and is constantly recreated by communities and groups in response to their environment, their interaction with nature, and their historical conditions of existence. Intangible cultural heritage is seen to provide people with a sense of identity and continuity. By safeguarding it, intangible heritage is seen to promote, sustain and develop cultural diversity and human creativity.
Australian Indigenous language, music and dance
Language is vitally important in understanding Indigenous Australian heritage,as much of Indigenous Australian history is an oral history. In Australia, hundreds of languages and dialects existed when Europeans came into contact (although many are now extinct), and language meaning, as well as geographic location, is used today to identify different groups.
In Australia, music, song and dance was and is still today a very important part of Aboriginal life and customs. There were songs for every occasion, some of which were expressed in special ceremonies. Ceremonial performances are seen as the core of cultural life.
For Tiwi Islanders, these performances bring together all aspects of their art - song, dance, body decoration, sculpture and painting. Song is one of the primary means by which Indigenous Australians maintain their identity and culture. Today, there are many song types which flourish across Australia including Aboriginal rock and folk music.
Dance performance, Garma Festival 2005. CARP file photo.
Dance is a unique aspect of ceremonies which is learnt and passed down from one generation to another. To dance is to be knowledgeable about the stories of the ancestral heroes. Dancing, unlike painting and singing, is learnt at an early age. This allows large groups of people to demonstrate their clan rights in front of an audience. Dance is also seen as an occasion to entertain and to be entertained and through the work of dance to show their love for families and kin. It is for this reason that dance may be performed at the end of every day in some communities.
Modern Indigenous dance companies like Bangarra, have developed under the direction of dance elders from Maningrida, Yirrkala and Dhalinbuy, north-eastern Arnhem Land.
Australian Aboriginal trackers / Охотники среди автралийских аборигенов
Warning. This article may contain the names and images of Aboriginal and Islander people now deceased. It also contains links to sites that may use images of Aboriginal and Islander people now deceased.
With mounting evidence and stories circulating about their seemingly miraculous ability to find people, Aboriginal trackers' abilities became legendary in the minds of white Australians. To the British people who had arrived in Australia after its establishment as a British colony in 1788, who were unfamiliar with the Australian landscape, these skills were remarkable and seemed almost magical.
The first recorded use of Aboriginal trackers in Australia took place in 1834 in Western Australia, near Fremantle, when two trackers, Mogo and Mollydobbin tracked a missing five-year-old boy for more than ten hours in very rough country. In 1864, the Duff children were lost for nine days in the Victorian Wimmera and the community was hampered in the search by heavy rain. Within a day of 'black trackers' being brought in, the Duff children were found, and amazingly, still alive.
Tracking skills
Paul Raffaele, Aboriginal tracker Teddy Egan and son. Image courtesy of Paul Raffaele.
Aboriginal people have developed exceptional tracking skills based on their hunter and gather life which includes the ability to track down animals, to identify and locate edible plants, and to find sources of water.
Indigenous Australian children learn to recognise the tracks of animals as soon as they are old enough to notice. Traditionally, as soon as children learn to walk, they learn to track their mother's and sibling's footprints as well as learning hand signs so people know when to be quiet or careful. To this end, people walking together in the bush do so in single file. The ground also makes a good drawing board and children learn the patterns and shapes which represent the tracks of common animals.
An experienced tracker can read the ground like a storybook. If the tracks are those of a mammal, he can probably tell you, from the size and 'weight' or depth of the tracks, its gender and approximate age. If the animal is a female, he will know by the spacing of the hind legs whether or not it is 'parapu' (carrying young). He will usually be able to tell you the species of a lizard and not only which way a snake is travelling, and its size, but how fast it is moving and whether it is harmless or venomous.
Pat Lowe, Hunters and Trackers of the Australian Desert, 2002
S. Sadler, Emu tracks (Dromaius novaehollandiae) in the Gibson Desert, Western Australia. Image courtesy of DW Stock Picture Library.
Trackers also need to know whether tracks are fresh, otherwise they might be wasting their hunting time. At the end of a day, however, a good hunter needs to be able to find his way home using the shortest route possible - not in the tedious zigzag way he tracked his prey. This acute sense of direction is inseparable from acute powers of observation and good memory.
Aboriginal guides in colonial exploring expeditions
The Aborigine Piper, who accompanied Mitchell on his expeditions. Lithograph by Fernyhough, Sydney, c. 1836. Image courtesy of the State Library of New South Wales.
As more and more European settlers came to the new British colony, the demand for land for farming and housing became greater. To meet the demand, some British settlers became explorers and it was common for such groups to include Aboriginal people as guides. The guides would use their knowledge of the land and their tracking skills to lead the party through unfamiliar country, find horses and party members who had strayed, and locate food and water.
The Aboriginal guides would also take on a diplomatic roles. They acted as ambassadors for the travellers as they passed through different tribal areas and making the group's passage as peaceful as possible, sometimes handing over their responsibilities at tribal border areas.
Explorers who worked with Aboriginal guides as part of their expeditions included Major Mitchell, who relied on the services of the Bathurst man known to the party as 'John Piper' to cross the Great Dividing Range.
Another well-known explorer was Edward John Eyre (1815-1901) who, together with his Aboriginal friend Wylie, was the first man to cross southern Australia from east to west, travelling across the Nullarbor Plain from Adelaide to Albany. About 1000 km short of Albany, Eyre and Wylie survived near starvation after seven days by finding a native waterhole and killing and eating kangaroos. Wylie was rewarded with a pension and returned to his country in Albany.
In contrast, the party led by Robert Burke and William Wills, from Melbourne to the Gulf of Carpentaria in Australia's far north, did not include Aboriginal guides. The account from the sole survivor, John King, records the explorers' hostility at offers to trade food for handkerchiefs from Aborigines along the Darling River. Oral history from Aboriginal descendents records the horror of the tribespeople at the expedition's caravan of oxen, bullocks, camels and horses drinking waterholes dry and removing all the heavy grinding stones from camp sites. Both the leaders of the expedition, and many others, died on this ill-fated expedition.
The Native Police forces
By the early 1800s, Aboriginal guides were also used to track down convicts and other criminals who had escaped into the bush, known as 'bushrangers'. It was a natural progression to use Aboriginal guides to track down Aboriginal people as well.
W.S. Smith, Horsemen including blacktrackers. Image courtesy of the State Library of New South Wales.
The first experiments with Native Police commenced in Victoria in 1837. In 1842, the Port Phillip Native Police Corps was established. The Corps included white officers and black troopers. The Corps provided a deterrent to Aboriginal attacks on pastoral properties as well as later policing the gold diggings and escorting gold to Melbourne.
However, the Native Police also used violence to settle conflicts with other Aboriginal people. By 1851, many Aboriginal people were killed by the Native Police in Western Victoria and Gippsland. The Corps operated for eleven years until it was disbanded. When it was disbanded, some of the Native Police were absorbed as trackers into the Victorian police.
A similar Aboriginal force was established in New South Wales in 1848 by Governor Charles Fitzroy. This force was under New South Wales' control until 1859, when Queensland became a separate colony and took over command. The Queensland force continued until 1900. Although the activities of the Native Police forces were often kept secret, its brutality toward Queensland Aborigines has been able to be documented (see Reynolds, 1990 and Elder, 1998 under our Print References section). They were ordered to 'disperse' any large numbers of Aboriginal people which meant 'nothing but firing at them' according to a contemporary police source. The force was also implicated in several massacres. This brutality was provoked by the Queensland police constables who, according to Walter Roth, Northern Protector of Aborigines (1897-1906), would engineer a series of tribal killings, creating bloodshed until the deaths were avenged (Richards 1999).
Many police forces established unofficial relationships with Aboriginal trackers. The most famous use of trackers was the party who assisted Victorian Police to track down the notorious bushranger Ned Kelly in 1878 and 1880. Ned Kelly was said to be more afraid of the Aboriginal trackers than anyone else.
The volunteer 'black trackers' from Fraser Island and Cape York, employees of the Queensland Native Police who tracked Ned Kelly, were lured by a promise of a cut in £8,000 reward offered for Kelly's capture. After the Glenrowan showdown with Kelly and his gang in 1880, Jack Noble (Wannamutta) and Gary Owens (Werannabe), along with 92 others, applied for the reward. Sums were set aside for Noble and Owens and paid to the Queensland Government, but despite repeated requests the men never received their money. The men were placed in confinement camps with their families because they could not show visible means of support when they retired.
Aboriginal trackers in films and books
Stories about trackers are often used to explore the relationships between Indigenous and white Australians and, in turn, how these groups relate to the land in which they work and live. Aboriginal trackers are also immortalised in oral histories as well as fictional accounts such as Ion Idriess's Mantracks and in the detective series of Arthur Upfield's Bony.
Films
David Gulpilil in a scene from The Tracker by Rolf DeHeer. Image courtesy of Vibe Australia.
Walkabout, by Nicholas Roeg, tells the story of two white children lost in the Australian desert, who are rescued by a passing Aboriginal tracker. The Tracker, by Rolf de Heer, and Rabbit-Proof Fence, by Phillip Noyce, also feature Aboriginal trackers in their stories, based on life stories.
John Romeril's One Night the Moon, tells the story of an Aboriginal tracker who searches for a lost child despite being told by the child's father that his help is not wanted because he is Aboriginal. It is based on the true story of tracker Alexander Riley, who served in the New South Wales Police Force from 1911 to 1950. Tracker Riley, as he was known, received the King's Medal in 1942 for his work on a serial killing case. His son, Michael Riley, made a documentary called Black Tracker, which tells Tracker Riley's life story.
Famous Aboriginal trackers - yesterday and today
Neighbour, from Parliamentary Papers 1914. Courtesy of Australasian Legal Information Institute.
The first Aboriginal man to receive the Albert Medal for Bravery (the highest award possible for police officers) was a man known as Neighbour, who was awarded the medal for rescuing a police officer from the flooding Wilton river, in the Roper River area of the Northern Territory in south-east Arnhem Land in 1911. Neighbour rescued the policeman, who was clinging precariously to some pandanus palms in the middle of the fast-flowing water, whilst wearing heavy chains around his neck. Neighbour went on to work as a tracker with the Northern Territory Police.
Until 1900, many Aboriginal men and some women worked as police trackers, often on a casual basis or sometimes for longer stints. Often they were only paid a few shillings with rations supplied to their families. Trackers were employed full-time by the Northern Territory police until the late 1980s when they began to be phased out. Northern Territory artist Long Tom Tjapanangka worked both as a stockhand and police tracker for years before commencing his artistic career.
Yuendumu man Teddy Egan is probably the best known tracker in Australia today. In 1967, he assisted in the capture of an escaped murder suspect after two police officers were wounded in the pursuit. In 2000, he helped Northern Territory police to recapture an escaped prisoner. Egan says that tracking humans is much easier than tracking animals, because 'people make too much mess.' He was also one of four trackers used by Barrow Creek police to try to find missing English tourist Peter Falconio.
The Australian police still occasionally call on the services of Aboriginal trackers, particularly in Western Australia, Queensland and the Northern Territory. In 1980, several Aboriginal trackers joined the search for missing baby Azaria Chamberlain after she disappeared from a campsite near Uluru.
Bill Clinton's Life / Жизнь Билла Клинтона
Bill Clinton was born William Jefferson Blythe III on August 19, 1946, in the small town of Hope, Arkansas. He was named after his father, William Jefferson Blythe II, who had been killed in a car accident just three months before his son's birth. Needing a way to support herself and her new child, Bill Clinton's mother, Virginia Cassidy Blythe, moved to New Orleans, Louisiana, to study nursing. Bill Clinton stayed with his mother's parents in Hope. There his grandparents, Eldrigde and Edith Cassidy, taught him strong values and beliefs such as "equality among all and discrimination to none". This was a lesson Bill never forgot. His mother returned from New Orleans with a nursing degree in 1950, when her son was four year old. Later that same year, she married an automobile salesman named Roger Clinton. When Bill was seven years old, the family moved to Hot Springs, Arkansas for it offered a better employment opportunities. Roger received a higher paying job as a service manager for his brother's car dealer-ship and Virginia discovered a job as a nurse anesthetist. In 1956, Bill Clinton's half-brother, Roger Clinton Jr., was born. When his brother was old enough to enter school, young Bill had his last name legally altered from Blythe to Clinton.
Clinton's life continued and during his High school years he was awestruck by two successful leaders, John F. Kennedy and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. He was inspired by them so much that thrived on fulfilling their dreams. He raised money and organized charity events, but most of all he learned how to work with people and the concept of being a good citizen. In his spare time, he endulged himself in literature and played a saxophone. He loved music, and each summer he would attend a band camp in the Ozark Mountains. His hard work paid off when he became top saxophone player at his school and won first chair in state band.
Bill Clinton recognized that although college would be expensive, it would give him the education he needed to accomplish his goals. His hard work in school, combined with his music ability, earned him many academic and music scholarships. With the aid of those scholarships and loans from the government, he was able to attend Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. He chose George town because it had an excellent foreign service program and it was located in the nations capital.
He earned is Bachelor of Science Degree in International Affairs and worked an intern in the office of Arkansas Senator J. William Fulbright. He then continued college in Oxford University in England and Yale University. At Yale, he maintained his interest in government by campaigning for a Senator candidate in Connecticut. He also met Hillary Rodham, whom he would later marry on October 11, 1975.
He graduated and returned to Arkansas to teach law at the University of Arkansas. In 1974, he ran for congress and lost. In 1976, Bill was elected Attorney General of Arkansas and two years later, at the age of 32, he became the youngest governor in the U.S.
On February 27, 1980, the Clinton's daughter, Chelsea Victoria, was born. Also that year he lost his second term race but he regained it in 1982. He then proceeded to enhance education for all in the state and as chairman of the National Governors' Association in 1986 to '87 he reformed welfare. Not long after, Bill was nominated as the Democratic presidential candidate and he chose Al Gore from Tennessee as his running mate. Campaigning on the slogan "putting people first" and concepts such as preserving the American Dream, restoring the hopes of the middle class, and reclaiming the future for the nation's children lead him to the 42nd Presidency in the United States over George Bush. Running on the slogan "a bridge to the future" in 1996, Bill hopes to maintain this glorifying chair. Throughout his life, he has worked to make a difference in the lives of others. To him, Hope means more than just a small town in Arkansas; it means working to ensure that each American has the opportunity to fulfill his or her dream.
Robert Burns (1739 - 1796) - the Bard of Scotland / Роберт Бернс - шотландский бард
His father W. Burns was a hardworking farmer. He knew the value of a good education and he was determined to give his children the best schooling possible. There were 7 children in the family and Robert was the eldest. When he was 6 his father sent him to school to Alloway. His mother's friend Betty told him many fantastic tales about devils, ghosts, fairies and witches. At 13 he was out in the fields all day helping his father, and he studied nature closely and following the plough, he whistled and sang. In his songs he spoke of what he saw, of the woods, the fields, the valleys, of the deer, of the hare and the small field mouse, of the farmer's poor cottage home. Burns began to write poetry in his l6th. His first love song "Handsome Nell" was dedicated to the girl who helped him in the harvest fields. Life was hard for the family. His father died 1784. In 1788 Burns married Jean Armour she is immortalized in many beautiful poems written by the poet, such as "I LOVE MY JEAN", "THY BONNIE FACE". Robert and Jean continued meeting secretly and Robert gave Jean a paper declaring them man and wife. When Jean's father learned about it, he tore the paper up and forbade his daughter to see Robert. Jean obeyed and Robert being offended by it, swore never to see her again. One of the finest poems widely popular in Scotland "TAH O'SHANTER' was written in 1790. 1793 saw the appearance of the "TREE OF LIBERTY" in which R. Burns greeted the French Revolution but the poem was published only 40 years after Burn's death. All of R. Burn's poetry shows him to be one of great masters of lyrical verse, warm patriot of his native country. He had always stood for liberty, equality, justice and honesty. His poetry is deeply democratic and full of criticism directed against the landlords, the government officials. Our reader finds pleasure in reading Burn's poems and songs in the wonderful translation of Samuel Marshak. Whenever we speak of Scotland, the name of Scotland's Bard R. Burns is always there, as the ever-living, never-dying symbol of that country.
Prominent People of Belarus / Известные люди Белоруси
Our republic has rich historic and cultural traditions. We can speak about different people who promoted the development of Belorussia culture and art. Among them you can find the names of politicians and public figures, intellectuals and scientists, heroes of wars and labours, sportsmen and artists, musicians and singers. To being with it we can mention the name Efrosiniya Polotskaya who collected the libraries, rewrote books in the 11th century. Among famous man was dr. Fransisk Scorina, the greatest enlighten, humanitarian and scholar of Renaissance period. He was the son of a Polotsk merchant. Scorina entered the University of Krakov when he was 14. there he obtained the degree of doctor in the science of healthing. In 1957 Scorina was in Prague. There he started his printing activity. Within 3 years he published 22 volumes of Bible translated by him into the Belorussian language. Scorina played a very important role in the development of social and cultural life of Slavonic people and stimulated the progress of Belorussian literature and printing. He was a true renaissance man, his intellectual interests embraced theology, literature, languishing, poetry, art, law, medicine, botany and printing. The most important of his achievements was the translation and publication of the Bible in the Belorussian language. Scorina's Belorussian Bible was the second printed in the native Slavonic tongue. It goes without saying that Belorussian literature has made a great contribution to World literature. The names of Y. Kupala and Y. Kolas, M. Bogdanovich and K. Krapiva, Korotkevich are world famous. Our outstanding national writers Y. Kupala and Y.Kolas created a new Belorussian literature and the Belorussian literature language. They are considered to be the classic of Belorussian literature. I'd like to tell you more about Yanka Kupala. He represents one of the peaks of the Belorussian poetry. The most important factor, that influenced Kupala's works were Belorussians legends, Belorussian daily life. His father was an impoverished aristocrat, a tenant farmer. His home was not far from Minsk, an ordinary spot of house, that has been rebuilt in Vyasanka. It contained cover bets and embroidered hand-towels and books since he was almost a self-taught man. His first poem was "A peasant" a program for the whole of his life. His first collection of poem was "A Flute" marked for its truthfulness ring. In the past few years Belorussian literature has made new strides forward. The novels by I. Melizh V. Bryl I. Shamyakin V.Bykov are profound chronicles and they will remain in our memory forever. After this came a new generation of talented poets and prose writers which enriched our literature. They are R. Baradulin, a master of verse Y.Spivakov, B. Sachanka and others. We have plenty of artists who portray the natural beauty of Belarus, its heroic past and its known, less heroic present. The names of Zaitsev, Tsvirka, Volkov, Savitsky, and many others are known far beyond the borders of the republic. We can find talented Belorussian people in all branches of art. The most famous composers are Churkin, Tsikotsky, Bogatyrov, Luchenok,. There are many famous artists in our native country. Such names as Shagal, Volkov are famous not only in our country, but in many countries of the world. Our ballet troop is considered to be one of the best in the world. The most famous of our dancers are Zakharov, Dushkevich, Fadeyeva. Belorussian music is on the upswing. A great many popular songs, operas and symphonies have been created by the well-known composers such as Semenyaka, Glebov. Many prominent names in the history of Belarus of the 20th century are connected with 2 main events, World War 2 and space exploration. All Belarussians fought heroically defending their Motherland. But we are especially proud of the heroes of the last war: Baslonov, Osipova, Gastello, Talalichin, the defenders of Brest Fortress, ect. In the family of cosmonauts there are 2 Belarussians, Kovalenok and Klimuk. At the present time, the time of revaluation of values, its difficult to find heroes, especially among politicians. Time will put everything in its place and give everybody his due. But one is obvious: great times are created by great men. Their names are sure to become history whatever it may be.
Margaret Thatcher / Маргарет Тетчер
Margaret Thatcher was the longest Prime Minister of the 20th century. Her style and her views appealed to mane British people who had lost confidence in the welfare state and in the direction the nation had taken. In some ways she was the first genuine leader the nation had had since Churchill. Margaret Thatcher began her career in politics, when she became a Conservative Member of Parliament. in 1979 she was elected as Britain's first woman Prime Minister. From the start, her autocratic style earned her the nickname of "The Iron Lady". Her abrasive manner has attracted some criticism. During the Falklands War of 1982, however, Margaret Thatcher's militant patriotism found her many supporters, and she became something of a popular hero-figure, much as Winston Churchill had been in the Second World War. Margaret Thatcher was re-elected Prime Minister in the general elections of 1983 and 1987.
Famous people of Russia / Известные люди России
Much was done by people to reach the present state of human development. It is necessary to say that great contribution to the development of the world science and culture, literature, music and painting was made by the Russian people. The names of Russian scientists and writers, poets, composers and painters are world-famous-Pushkin, Lermontov, Chehov, Levitan. This chain can be endless. It is almost impossible to name a branch of science in the development of which the Russian scientists haven't played the greatest role. Lomonosov, the founder of the Moscow University was an outstanding innovator both in the humanities and sciences. Mendeleev's greatest discovery was the Periodic System of Elements. Popov invented radio. Sechenov and Pavlov were the world's greatest physiologists. Russia is rightly called the mother of aviation and cosmounatics. Names of Tsiolkovsky, Korolov and Gagarin are symbols of new space era. People in many countries admire paintings, portraits and landscapes Surikov, Levitan, Repin works of our Russian writes and poets are translated into many languages. I want to tell about one of the greatest Russians. Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, an outstanding Russian composer, was born in Votkinsk in 1840. He was fond of music since his early childhood. His mother sang him beautiful songs and taught him to play the piano. He graduated from the Petersburg Conservatoire only in 1866 because of his poor living conditions. He was the best pupil of Anton Rubinstein. When the Moscow Conservatoire was founded, Pyotr Ilyich became a professor there. He created wonderful music: 10 operas, 3 ballets, 6 symphonies, 7 large symphonic poems and many other musical pieces, a new type of opera, which was a great success all over the world.
Famous people of Great Britain / Известные люди Великобритании
There are many outstanding people in Great Britain. Britain produced statesmen, thinkers, explorers, musicians, writers, scientists and other people who are well known around the world. Isaac Newton one of the greatest men in the history of science was born in a little village in the middle of the 17th century. He studded math at Cambridge University. Newton's contribution to physics astronomy and math is so great that, he may be considered the founder of the mordent mathematics and physics. He discovered the law of motion and the universal law of gravitation. He studded the nature of light and colour and came to the conclusion that white colour consists of many different colours known as spectrum. He died when he was 84 and was burred at Westminster Abbey. Charles Darwin was born in the beginning of the 19th century. He was a great biologist. He created a new theory of evolution. Once there were only simple organisms living in the seas, hundreds millions of years they have developed to produce all the different kind animals and plants we knew today. Michael Faraday was born at the end of the 17th century. He was interested in electricity very much and spent long months studding this strange force. He discovered that electricity passed from the magnet to the wires and cowbell become a strong electric current. So he opened many laws of electricity and magnetism. Lord Rutherford the great pioneer of nuclear physics received the Nobel Prize in 1908 for his investigations into decay of elements chemistry of radiated substances. Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1929.
Gerard Depardieu / Жерар Депардье
Gerard Depardieu is one of the most popular actors. He was born in 1948 in a poor family of a shoemaker in a little town. When he was 16 he came to Paris without any education and without any money. Together with his friend he began to attend the actor courses. He got acquainted with a girl of a wealthy family and soon they got married. She had a great influence upon him. He finished the actor courses. When he was only 20 he played big roles in the theatres. His great success in films is a consequence of his good theatrical school. But his success in the USA was not long. In 1991 during his interview to the magazine "Time" he told that he was a hooligan when he was a teenager. The american audience doesn't excuse such fact in his biography. The works of Depardieu in cinema are marked by many cinema rewards in France and in Italy. Everybody notes that glory and money don't spoil him. They only made him independent. He played in about 80 films.
Bohdan Khmelnitskiy / Богдан Хмельницкий
The history of the Ukrainian state is the history of national movement for liberty and independence. Any movement has its heroes Bohdan Khmelnitskiy is one of them. He was born in 1595 and he is known as a public figure, a general and the Ukrainian Hetman from 1649. B.H. was a well-educated brilliant man and he knew such languages as: the ukr,rus,polish,latin,turkish and the tartar language.He had a good knowledge of history, geography and law. He was also good as a soldier In 1620 both he and his father took part in the campaign of the polish army against Turks in Moldova.In the same year he was taken prisoner by the Turks.The captivity lasted for 2 long years.Later he was a member of the Reyester Cossacks Army and the participant of the rebellions of 1637-1638. In 1638-1646 B.H. was a chegirinskiy sotnik, and later because of persecution from the side of the polish authorities and he ran away to Zhaporizhkaya Sich where he was the head of the revolt. This insuration gave the beginning to the war for liberty and independence against Poland (1648-1654). He led the army in the great number of successful battles. On 8 june B.H. sent the letter to the russian tsar Alexey Mikhailovich with the request to take Ukraine in Russian authority and to render assistance in the war. As a result of the tremendous efforts the union of Rus and Ukr became a reality. This agreement has been signed in 1654 on the Pereyaslavskaya Rada. B.H. remained a chief of the Hetman administration till his death in 1657. Folk dumas, historical songs and legends are devoted to him. This man as a hero of the war for liberty and independence is shown in the works of Shevchenko, Grebinka, Franko.The image of B.H. is widely reflected both in literature, music, movie and theatrical art. The history of the Ukrainian state is the history of national movement for liberty and independence. Any movement has its heroes Bohdan Khmelnitskiy is one of them. He was born in 1595 and he is known as a public figure, a general and the Ukrainian Hetman from 1649. B.H. was a well-educated brilliant man and he knew such languages as: the ukr,rus,polish,latin,turkish and the tartar language.He had a good knowledge of history, geography and law. He was also good as a soldier In 1620 both he and his father took part in the campaign of the polish army against Turks in Moldova.In the same year he was taken prisoner by the Turks.The captivity lasted for 2 long years.Later he was a member of the Reyester Cossacks Army and the participant of the rebellions of 1637-1638. In 1638-1646 B.H. was a chegirinskiy sotnik, and later because of persecution from the side of the polish authorities and he ran away to Zhaporizhkaya Sich where he was the head of the revolt. This insuration gave the beginning to the war for liberty and independence against Poland (1648-1654). He led the army in the great number of successful battles. On 8 june B.H. sent the letter to the russian tsar Alexey Mikhailovich with the request to take Ukraine in Russian authority and to render assistance in the war. As a result of the tremendous efforts the union of Rus and Ukr became a reality. This agreement has been signed in 1654 on the Pereyaslavskaya Rada. B.H. remained a chief of the Hetman administration till his death in 1657. Folk dumas, historical songs and legends are devoted to him. This man as a hero of the war for liberty and independence is shown in the works of Shevchenko, Grebinka, Franko.The image of B.H. is widely reflected both in literature, music, movie and theatrical art. The history of the Ukrainian state is the history of national movement for liberty and independence. Any movement has its heroes Bohdan Khmelnitskiy is one of them. He was born in 1595 and he is known as a public figure, a general and the Ukrainian Hetman from 1649. B.H. was a well-educated brilliant man and he knew such languages as: the ukr,rus,polish,latin,turkish and the tartar language.He had a good knowledge of history, geography and law. He was also good as a soldier In 1620 both he and his father took part in the campaign of the polish army against Turks in Moldova.In the same year he was taken prisoner by the Turks.The captivity lasted for 2 long years.Later he was a member of the Reyester Cossacks Army and the participant of the rebellions of 1637-1638. In 1638-1646 B.H. was a chegirinskiy sotnik, and later because of persecution from the side of the polish authorities and he ran away to Zhaporizhkaya Sich where he was the head of the revolt. This insuration gave the beginning to the war for liberty and independence against Poland (1648-1654). He led the army in the great number of successful battles. On 8 june B.H. sent the letter to the russian tsar Alexey Mikhailovich with the request to take Ukraine in Russian authority and to render assistance in the war. As a result of the tremendous efforts the union of Rus and Ukr became a reality. This agreement has been signed in 1654 on the Pereyaslavskaya Rada. B.H. remained a chief of the Hetman administration till his death in 1657. Folk dumas, historical songs and legends are devoted to him. This man as a hero of the war for liberty and independence is shown in the works of Shevchenko, Grebinka, Franko.The image of B.H. is widely reflected both in literature, music, movie and theatrical art. The history of the Ukrainian state is the history of national movement for liberty and independence. Any movement has its heroes Bohdan Khmelnitskiy is one of them. He was born in 1595 and he is known as a public figure, a general and the Ukrainian Hetman from 1649. B.H. was a well-educated brilliant man and he knew such languages as: the ukr,rus,polish,latin,turkish and the tartar language.He had a good knowledge of history, geography and law. He was also good as a soldier In 1620 both he and his father took part in the campaign of the polish army against Turks in Moldova.In the same year he was taken prisoner by the Turks.The captivity lasted for 2 long years.Later he was a member of the Reyester Cossacks Army and the participant of the rebellions of 1637-1638. In 1638-1646 B.H. was a chegirinskiy sotnik, and later because of persecution from the side of the polish authorities and he ran away to Zhaporizhkaya Sich where he was the head of the revolt. This insuration gave the beginning to the war for liberty and independence against Poland (1648-1654). He led the army in the great number of successful battles. On 8 june B.H. sent the letter to the russian tsar Alexey Mikhailovich with the request to take Ukraine in Russian authority and to render assistance in the war. As a result of the tremendous efforts the union of Rus and Ukr became a reality. This agreement has been signed in 1654 on the Pereyaslavskaya Rada. B.H. remained a chief of the Hetman administration till his death in 1657. Folk dumas, historical songs and legends are devoted to him. This man as a hero of the war for liberty and independence is shown in the works of Shevchenko, Grebinka, Franko.The image of B.H. is widely reflected both in literature, music, movie and theatrical art.
Nature of our region / Природа нашего региона
My native town is Chita. The Chita Region is in the south-east of Siberia, in Zabaikalye. Its territory is about 430000 sq. km. Zabaikalye is far away from the big economic centres of the west of the country, but it’s close to the Russian Far East. The Region is a mountainous country. There are some plateaus, hills and mountain ranges: the Argynsky and Nerchinsky chains. The ranges Kodar, Udokan and Kalar are also well-known. Our Region is rich in natural resources: ferrous and non-ferrous metals, precious metals (silver, gold, platinum), clay, construction materials, graphite, magnetic ores, technical and drinking water, copper, zinc, uranium and molybdenum. There are a lot of rives in our region. The Shilka and the Argun rivers flowing over the territory are the sources of the Amur. The Shilka, in its turn, has the tributaries – the Ingoda and the Onon. Such rivers as the Khilok and the Chikoi flow into the Lena River basin. The Chita Region has a lot of lakes such as Leprindo, Leprindokan in the North and the group of Ivano-Arakhlei lakes in the central part. Our rivers and lakes are abundant in fish: pike, salmon, trout, grayling, perch and so on. Zabaikalye is originally a land of vast forests, mainly pine, birch and larch. They are the commonest trees in the region. Besides, in our taiga you can find elm, asp, alder. There are evergreen trees such as pines, fir-trees, silver fir trees, Siberian cedar. As for me, I like cedar nuts, They are so tasty. Animal life is various too. Many different animals live in forests and woods, fields and meadows: bears, wolves, foxes, hares, elks, lynxes, sables, squirrels, chipmunks, red deer, musk deer, north deer. When spring comes our woods and forests are filled with the songs of the birds. Among birds the most numerous are sparrows, ravens, magpies, tits, pigeons, woodpeckers. They are not migrated birds, they live here all the year round, some birds such as swallows, swifts, wagtails, cranes, herons, larks fly away to warm lands in autumn and come back again in spring. The world of wild flowers, medical herb is various. The first spring flowers are blue crocuses, primroses and violets, then we can see butter cups, king cups, forget-me-nots, dandelions, bluebells, pinks, lilies and foxgloves. What’s more, our region is rich in different berries: cowberries and blueberries. The climate of the Chita Region is subcontinental, that is winter is long and severe, with little snow and sunny dry weather, summer is short and warm. But these rigorous climatic conditions in winter are rather tolerable, because of the slight speed of wind, dry clear air, a long period of insolation. The most pert of the Region’s territory is located in the zone of low humidity. The distribution of rainfall over the territory and within the year is very uneven.
Nature protection / Защита природы
Computers project that between now and the year of 2030 we are going to have increase of the average temperature between 1,5—4,5 Degrees C. Sea levels would rise by several metres, flooding coastal areas and ruining vast tracts of farmland. Huge areas would be infertile and become uninhabitable. Water contamination could lead to shortages of safe drinking water. It looks like the end of civilization on the Earth. For hundreds of thousands of years the human race has thriven in Earth's environment. But now, at the end of the 20th century, we are at a crucial turning point. We have upset nature's sensitive equilibrium releasing harmful substances into the air, polluting rivers and oceans with industrial waste and tearing up the countryside to accommodate our rubbish. These are the consequences of the development of civilization. We are to stop it by joint efforts of all the people of the world. The range of environmental problems is wide. But the matters of people's great concern nowadays are atmosphere and climate changes, depletion of the ozone layer, freshwater resources, oceans and coastal areas, deforestation and desertification, biological diversity, biotechnology, health and chemical safety. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) concentrates its activities on these issues. Acid Rains One of the most alarming forms of air pollution is acid rain. It results from the release into the atmosphere of sulphur and nitrogen oxides that react with water droplets and return to earth in the form of acid rain, mist or snow. Acid rain iskilling forests (Nearly every species of tree is affected) It has acidified lakes and streams and they can't support fish, wildlife, plants or insects. Depletion of the Ozone Layer The protective layer of the Earth, the ozone layer, which protects the Earth from the sun's destructive UV (ultraviolet) rays, is being damaged by CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons). They are released by the daily use of industrial and household products: refrigerators, air conditioners, foam insulation, cleaning chemicals, food packaging. In the ozone layer they attack the ozone molecules making a «hole». This «hole» allows more UV rays to penetrate to the Earth. It increases the risk of skin cancer, weakens the immune system of people. Besides, UV rays influence the oceans, the growth of plankton, an essential part of the marine-life food chain in the negative way, reduce economically important-crops (rice, cotton, soy beans). The life cycle is going to be undermined by the ozone. Destruction of the Tropical Forest It’s generally agreed that the destruction of the tropical forest has a major impact on the world climate. The tropical rain forest is a natural recycler, provider and protector for our planet. It recycles carbon, nitrogen and oxygen, helps determine temperature, rainfall and other climatic conditions and supports the most diverse ecosystem in the world. Deforestation could cause one forth of all species on earth to vanish in the next 25 years. These forests in Amazonia, South-East Asia and West and Central Africa are being destroyed at an alarming rate of 42 million acres per year. Measures to Be Taken We have only a few years to attempt to turn things around. We must review our wasteful, careless ways, we must consume less, recycle more, conserve wildlife and nature, act according to the dictum «think locally, think globally, act locally». To my mind, we are obliged to remove factories and plants from cities, use modern technologies, redesign and modify purifying systems for cleaning and trapping harmful substances, protect and increase the greenery and broaden ecological education. These are the main practical measures, which must he taken in order to improve the ecological situation. Some progress has been already made in this direction. 159 countries-members of the UNO have set up environmental protection agencies. They hold conferences discussing ecological problems, set up environmental research centres and take practical urgent measures to avoid ecological catastrophe. There are numerous public organisations such as Greenpeace that are doing much to preserve environment. The 5th of June is proclaimed the World Environmental Day by the UNO and is celebrated every year.
Nature and ecology / Природа и экология
Since ancient times Nature has served man, being the source of his life. For thousands of years people lived in harmony with environment and it seemed to them that natural riches were unlimited. But with the development of civilization man’s interference in nature began to increase. Every year world industry pollutes the atmosphere with about 1000 million tons of dust and other harmful substances. Many cities suffer from smog. Vast forests are cut and burn in fire. Their disappearance upsets the oxygen balance. As a result some rare species of animals, birds, fish and plants disappear forever, a number of rivers and lakes dry up. The pollution of air and the world’s ocean, destruction of the ozone layer is the result of man’s careless interaction with nature, a sign of ecological cities. Environmental protection is of a universal concern. That is why serious measures to create a system of ecological security should be taken.
Environmental problems / Проблемы окружающей среды
The poisoning of the world's land, air, and water is the fastest-spreading disease of civilisation. It probably produces fewer headlines than wars, earthquakes and floods, but it is potentially one of history's greatest dangers to human life on earth. If present trends continue for the next several decades, our planet will become uninhabitable. Overpopulation, pollution and energy consumption have created such planet-wide problems as massive deforestation, ozone depletion, acid rains and the global warming that is believed to be coused by the greenhouse effect. The seas are in danger. They are filled with poison: industrial and nuclear waste, chemical fertilisers and pesticides. The Mediterranean is already nearly dead; the North Sea is following. The Aral Sea is on the brink of extinction. If nothing is done about it, one day nothing will be able to live in the seas. Every ten minutes one kind of enimal, plant or insect dies out for ever. If nothing is done about it, one million species that are alive today will have become extinct twenty years from now. Air population is a very serious problem. In Cairo just breathing the air is life threatening- equivalent to smoking two packs of cigarettes a day. The same holds true for Mexico City and 600 cities of the former Soviet Union. Industrial enterprises emit tons of harmful substunces. These emissions have disastrous consequences for our planet. They are the main reason for the greenhouse effect and acid rains. An even greater environmental threat are nuclear power stations. We all know how tragic the consequences of the Chernobyl disaster are. People are beginning to realise that environmenta problems are not somebody else's. They join and support various international organosation and green parties. If governments wake up to what is happening- perhaps we'll be able to avoid the disaster that threatens the natural world and all of us with it.
My favourite writers / Мои любимые писатели
I'm fond of reading. Usually I borrow books from the library, but I have a lot of them at home, too. I like to read books about the history of our country, about famous people and the life of my contemporaries abroad. Literature means much in my life. It helps to form the character and the world outlook, to understand life better. There are some names in Russian and foreign literatures that are very dear to me. In Russian literature I value Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev (1818-1883) highly. For me he is a real intellectual and aristocrat, a man of culture, devoted to literature, music and painting. Though he lived abroad for a long time he didn't stop to be a Russian writer for a moment. He created a number of national characters in his books. The image of urgency's woman, deeply feeling, faithful and tender is an ideal of a Russian woman for me. It doesn't lose its charm even today. Turgenev's descriptions of nature are delightful too. Take for example his "Byezhin Prairie", "Torrents of spring" etc. Turgenev's prose is very poetic. His style is perfect; his dialogues are easy-read, interesting, life-like, and yet always significant. One may think that Turgenev is too balanced, too poetic for the new age, but one must admit that these are the qualities we badly lack today. Of the present day writers and poets I like Eugene Evtushenko, Valentin Rasputin, Valentin Pikul, Boris Vasilyev, Tatyana Tolstaya, Andrei Dementyev. Their books are very humane and realistic. They assert high moral principles into life. And this is very important nowadays. My favourite foreign writer is O'Henry. In childhood I was deeply impressed by his story "The Last Leaf. Since". Since then I bear in my heart the image of a young girl suffering from incurable illness and her friends doing everything they can to give her hope and bring back to life. The author penetrates deeply into a person's soul and reveals its best qualities. He obviously sympathises with common people, describes their feelings to other people, their warm-heartedness and kindness.
Ernest Hemingway / Эрнест Хеммингуэй
My favorite book is "The Old Man and the Sea" by Ernest Hemingway. This story is one of the well-known works of the writer. The author depicts the characters of the old man and the boy and their relations very vividly and skillfully. Santiago, the old man, was one of the writer's beloved characters. The old man was a born fisherman, but he was not a butcher and fished only for a living. He was very lonely. He had a devoted friend - the boy, Manolin. The boy loved the old man for his kind heart, his devotion to the sea. Manolin was like a son to Santiago. He took care of the old man's food and his belongings. The old man was glad to pass his experience to the boy. He looked forward to going to the sea together with the boy. All Santiago's life had been in preparation for the battle with big fish. He knew that he had been born for this and it was time to prove it. A strong man at last had met a strong fish. The battle was a difficult one and full of danger. Though the sharks had eaten the fish and nothing had left but the backbone, the old man had morally won the battle. Santiago's words "man can be destroyed but not defeated" are the main idea of this story. "The Old Man and the Sea" is a masterpiece for its imaginative language and the description of nature.
Fedor Dostoevski / Федор Достоевский
The Russian writer Dostoevski (1821-1881) is regarded as one of the world's great novelists. In Russia he was surpassed only by Leo Tolstoi. Fedor Mikhailovich Dostoevski was born on Nov. 11, 1821, in a Moscow hospital where his father was a physician. At 13 Fedor was sent to a Moscow boarding school, then to a military engineering school in St. Petersburg. Shortly after graduating he resigned his commission in order to devote his time to writing. Dostoevski had published two novels and several sketches and short stories when he was arrested along with a group of about 20 others with whom he had been studying French socialist theories. After the 1848 revolutions in Western Europe, Russia's Czar Nicholas I decided to round up all of that country's revolutionaries, and in April 1849 Dostoevski's group was imprisoned. Dostoevski and several others were sentenced to be shot, but at the last minute their sentence was changed to four years of hard labor in a prison in Omsk, Siberia. There, Dostoevski said, they were "packed in like herrings in a barrel" with murderers and other criminals. He read and reread the New Testament, the only book he had, and built a mystical creed, identifying Christ with the common people of Russia. He had great sympathy for the criminals. As a child Dostoevski suffered from mild epilepsy, and it grew worse in prison. After four years in prison, he was sent as a private to a military station in Siberia. There in 1857 he met and married a widow named Marie Isaeva. In 1860 Dostoevski was back in St. Petersburg. The next year he began to publish a literary journal that was soon suppressed, though he had by now lost interest in socialism. In 1862 he visited Western Europe and hated the industrialism he saw there. Dostoevski had been separated from his wife but visited her in Moscow before her death in 1864. In 1867 he married his young stenographer, Anna Snitkina. He died on Feb. 9, 1881, in St. Petersburg.
Myself / Я
My name is Alexander. My full name is Alexander Sergeevich Slusarenko. I was born to a family of a sailor on a submarine. My family is not small. There are four of us. When I was 7, I went to school. I did well at school. I was especially good at math and geometry, but also coped with the rest of the subjects. Thus from the point of view of my progress at school I didn't cause much trouble to my parents. But I did make them worry because I used to come home rather late. The thing is I went in for swimming and our training finished at about 7 p.m. I lived far from the swimming-pool, so it took me quite a lot of time to get home. When at school I fell into the habit of reading a lot. At first I read everything I caught hold of but the order I grew the more definite my tastes in books became.
I took to reading historic books, books about adventures. I read very much technics books about computers and all that connect to it such as mathematics, phisics, programming and others. Now I think about this, I come to the conclusion I should be grateful to my parents for this habit: they themselves read much and encourage my reading. I am sure books will be my friends all my life. In my last year of schooling I often wondered what I would be in future, what sphere of life I should choose. After a number of heated discussions with my parents and friends I decided to dwell my choice on applied mathematics. I think I shall make a good mathematician.
About myself / О себе
I have many hobbies because there are many interesting things to do. Unfortunately I don't have much spare time as I'm going to be a student. That's why I have to study a lot. I like doing different things: Such as reading detective stories, listening to the music, playing tennis with my classmates. But my favorite hobby is solving crossword puzzles. It's not only interesting, but also very useful. When you try to solve the puzzle you find out and learn a lot of different facts. Because in puzzles there are questions about famous people, geographical places, countries, scientific achievements and so on. You also train your brain. The crosswords are published in newspapers and magazines and there are special newspapers that contain only crosswords. I sometimes try to make up my own puzzle and I can say that it is not less interesting. All the members of our family like to take part in solving the puzzles and this unites us very much.
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Many people have hobbies. They make our life more interesting. A hobby is what people like to do when they have free time. Everyone chooses a hobby according to his character and taste. Some people are fond of music, others like to read books. Some people like to collect stamps, coins or badges, others prefer gardening or hiking or taking photographs. Some people like to cook, others like to knitter sew. Generally speaking, a hobby is a matter of taste.
My hobby is playing computer games. Both grown-ups and children are fond of it now. It has become one of the most popular hobbies nowadays. I think that playing with a computer is very interesting. It is not only "wasting time" as some people say.
Computer games make us to think things over proper-ly, they widen and develop our mind and imagination. I have a good collection of different games and when I have some free time I play them with great pleasure. My favourite game is...
Some of my friends have the same hobby and we like to play together.