The definition theory is the first, and most obvious, of the theories of meaning; it establishes that in order to resolve confusions about the meaning of a word, one must consult a dictionary (Van de Lagemaat 52). When one wants to understand the meaning of ‘circle,’ a dictionary can give an exact definition, such as: a set of points equidistant from a single point within a plane. Since mathematics is concerned with numbers and special configurations, an exact definition is required, and thus, this theory is perfectly applicable to the area of knowledge of mathematics. Additionally, since the natural sciences also involve technical and precise terminology, the definition theory is applicable to this area of knowledge as well. Van de Lagemaat’s second theory, the denotation theory, assumes that meaningful words stand for something, while meaningless ones do not ( 1). For example, ‘Argentina’ is only meaningful because it represents a country in South America while ‘dubiloot’ is meaningless because it does not represent anything whatsoever. These two theories cannot pertain to the areas of knowledge that involve abstract words (the arts, ethics) because when dealing with abstract words, one cannot completely comprehend their meaning based on the dictionary definition. The denotation theory can be considered invalid with reference to proper names, and if the theory were taken literally, then people would not be able to speak of others when they die (Van de Lagemaat 53). According to Chomsky, “…It is a very difficult matter to describe the meaning of a word, and such meanings have great intricacy and involve the most remarkable assumptions, even in the case of very simple concepts, such as what counts as a possible thing,” (Chomsky 29). With this in mind, these two theories can only be applied to concrete words and cannot relate to more abstract words, such as love and freedom, which can be further understood by the meaning as know-how theory.
The image theory assumes that the meaning of a word is the mental image it stands for ( 1). It is constituted on each person having his or her own mental representation of an object or feeling, which is private and customized to each individual experience. Therefore when trying to communicate through language, one can never be sure if the other understands the meaning of a word in the same way (van de Lagemaat 54). For example, when a tourist asks a local for directions, the local’s mental image of his own directions is based on his knowledge of the city and his own experience when traveling that city, while the tourist’s mental image of those same directions could be distorted and inaccurate causing a miscommunication between them. This is one example of how private mental images could form the basis of both the many understandings and the many misunderstandings of social life ( 1). Van de Lagemaat’s fourth and final theory of meaning is the meaning as know-how theory. This theory seems to be a conclusion based on the first three theories; the theory claims that language is no one thing, but that it is composed of as many distinct ‘language games’ and that one knows the meaning of a word when one knows how to use it properly in the language game to which it belongs ( 1).
Van de Lagemaat includes this quote by Lewis Carroll in his chapter on Language,
’When I use a word,’ Humpty Dumpty said in rather a scornful tone, ‘it means just what I choose it mean – neither more nor less.’ ‘The question is,’ said Alice, ‘whether you can make words mean so many different things.’ ‘The question is, said Humpty Dumpty, ‘which is to be master – that’s all.’ Here, Carroll seems to be identifying two of the five categories of problematic meaning, ambiguity and connotation, by using figurative language himself. Ambiguity is when words have more than one meaning. Language is often ambiguous, and therefore words with multiple meanings can only be understood through the process of singling out the correct meaning by a process of elimination with reference to the context ( 1). People can use ambiguity for their own benefit, for example, in literature (the arts), authors often use ambiguity for amusement or entertainment and politicians (ethics) also use ambiguity to mislead and deceive people; nonetheless, people often misuse ambiguity and cause confusion with what they are attempting to communicate. The connotation, or secondary meaning of a word, varies from person to person; it is the private and individualized meaning of a word while the denotation, or primary meaning is the public and formal meaning of a word that is usually found in the dictionary. Euphemisms are an example of connotations; they are substitutions for harsh or unpleasant words. ‘Passed away’ and ‘went to heaven’ are examples of euphemisms for the denotation of ‘died.’ Another category of problematic meaning is vagueness. Vague words can cause misunderstandings because even in a specific context, people can have different ideas of what a vague word implies (van de Lagemaat 55). For instance, the word ‘heavy’ is vague, even in a specific context like, “Lucy is a heavy smoker.” Heavy could mean a pack of cigarettes a day for one person, and three packs a day for another person. Slow is another example. Slow means something different when regarding a turtle than when regarding a track runner. Language contains both precise words and vague words because they serve different functions that are necessary for communication. Another category of problematic meaning is metaphors. A metaphor is a deliberate extension of a word beyond its normal meaning; buzz words, idioms and clichés all derive from metaphors. Dead metaphors are phases that were originally metaphors but have become so familiar that people no longer think of them as metaphors, such as ‘nightfall’ and ‘chair leg.’ The last category of problematic meaning is irony: saying the opposite of what one truly means. Irony is another example of the versatility and flexibility of language.
Language is a thick concept, one whose meaning cannot be exhausted by a simple definition; the arbitrary symbols that language is composed of are considered to be language when they are rule governed, intended and open-ended. Language’s many capabilities and limits are elaborated through the four theories of meaning and the five categories of problematic meaning. Overall, language can be vague, precise, extended, inverted and can be a lot more than what one thought. Language is ambiguous, for vagueness, connotation and irony can all fall into the category of ambiguity. Regardless of its limits, language is a necessary part of life, since most of our information is retrieved through this way of knowing.
Works Cited
Chomsky, Noam. Language and Problems of Knowledge: the Managua Lectures. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1988. Print.
Lagemaat, Richard van de.. Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Print.