Permissive parents are responsive but undemanding, accept most behaviours and make few demands for household responsibility and orderly behaviour. The child is not encouraged to obey externally defined standards and is rarely punished (Hall, 1986). These children have to make their own decisions although they are not ready to do so, and are not taught good manners. Sears (1957, cited in Jersild, 1968) found that a permissive mother was not necessarily warm and friendly. Maccoby and Martin (1983, cited in Berk, 2000) classified a forth child rearing style called uninvolved, the parents are undemanding and unresponsive, often emotionally detached. These parents pay little attention to children and do not enforce rules or moral behaviour, in particular about homework. Fesbach (in press, cited in Hall 1986) found that when mothers are under stress they are more likely to act negatively towards children in play and learning situations and are less likely to provide praise or reward. Parents use different styles, but all use the same techniques, punishment, rewards and modelling to try to produce socially competent children — responsible and independent (Hall, 1986).
The two highly demanding parenting styles have different effects on children development and adjustment at a young age. Authoritarian children tend to be restricted in expressing themselves, overprotected, withdrawn, unhappy, anxious, disobedient, aggressive, and lacking in independence (Jersild, 1968). Girls set low goals for themselves and boys tend to be hostile (Hall, 1986). Authoritative children are the most active, free, happy, the best at asserting themselves with high self-esteem and good self-control (Watson, 1957, cited in Jersild, 1968). Girls are very independent and socially responsible and boys were no more independent, but were more socially responsible. Baumrind (1972, cited in Hall 1986) found that authoritative children managed to be responsible to group standards and maintain independence. Sears (1970, cited in Hall 1986) found that when 5 year old children reached the age of 12, the high achievers were from warm parents who used reason and discussion, implying the parenting style has an effect on educational achievement.
Children of permissive parents tend to be disobedient, rebellious, impulsive, demanding and dependent on adults, immature, angry, lacking in self-control and do badly at persistence tasks (Berk, 2000). Girls and boys act in the same way as if they had been brought up by authoritarian parents. Lamb and Baumrind (1978, cited in Hall, 1986) found that authoritarian and permissive parenting styles shield children from stress, therefore children are unassertive and unable to cope with frustration. Passive permissiveness and overprotectiveness both lead to dependent children. Uninvolved parents tend to have children who are neglected which means they have attachment, cognition and emotional problems. They lack in social skills and are more likely to be aggressive. Parents who switch between authoritarian and uninvolved styles are especially aggressive, irresponsible and do badly in school (Berk, 2000). This research implies that different parenting styles have a huge effect on how children develop, however, Baumrind (1975, cited in Hall, 1986) found that when pre-schoolers reached the age of 9 the differences between the groups have decreased. Watson (1957, cited in Jersild, 1968) found that child rearing styles had no effect on anxiety in children.
In adolescence authoritarian children are still less well adjusted, however they do better at school and participate less in anti-social acts than children of undemanding parents (Berk, 2000). In middle childhood authoritative children learn to negotiate and have good social and moral values so it is a natural progression for adults control to reduce (Berk, 2000). Pulkkinen (1982, cited in Hall 1986) found that Finnish children from child-centred homes tended to be (at age 14) responsible, socially competent, achievement orientated, with high self-esteem and employing good relationships with parents.
Permissive parenting tends to lead towards adolescence's having poor self-control, being uninvolved in education and more likely to partake in antisocial acts and take drugs (Berk, 2000). Children of uninvolved parents continue to have adjustment problems in adolescence, poor school performance, and likely to take drugs and have delinquency problems. Pulkkinen (1982, cited in Hall 1986) found that children from parent-centred homes tend to be impulsive, uninterested in school, are more likely to drink alcohol, smoke and start dating at an earlier age than other children.
There are a number of problems associated with the research carried out into child-rearing styles. Thomas at al. (1966, cited in Hall, 1986) found that parents of difficult children are not essentially different from parents of easy children. The temperamental characteristics of children are not caused by the parents, and the same parents may act in an authoritative manner towards an easy child and an authoritarian manner towards a difficult child. You cannot make cause-and-effect statements as it could be the type of child which moulds what type of child-rearing style parents use (Gleitman, 1999). The child-rearing style a parent uses may be a response to the child's temperament and personality, not a cause of it (Hall, 1986). Authoritative parents may just have mature, co-operative, obedient children (Berk 2000). There are also problems with the methodology used to research different parenting styles. Most research is obtained from parent's descriptions and claims in response to questionnaires, interviews, check-lists and self-rating scales (Jersild, 1968). Crandall and Preston (1955, cited in Jersild, 1968) found that when mothers rated themselves and were compared to a rating by a clinical psychologist, only moderate agreement was found between the ratings of behaviour. Therefore a great deal of care should be taken when interpreting the results of child-rearing studies as only correctional relationships can be found.
In conclusion, the research clearly shows that children of authoritative parents are the most lively, high in self-esteem and self-control and have a generally happy mood. They are also the best educational achievers and are less likely to participate in anti-social acts. Children of authoritarian, permissive or uninvolved parents are more likely to suffer from problems related with unhappiness, disobedience, independence, aggressiveness, poor social and moral behaviour and not be as academic as children from authoritative parents. It is unlikely that a parent will only ever use one parenting style, but it is more likely that they will use all at some point, but one will dominate. The main problem with this research area is that you cannot make cause-and effect-statements because it could be the child's temperament and personality which makes the parents use a particular parenting style. This means it is difficult to state what influence child-rearing styles have on the development of children, however there are clear links between the parenting style and child's behaviour, but you cannot state that the specific child rearing style caused a child's particular behavioural pattern.
Bibliography
Berk, L. E. (2000). Child Development. USA: Allyn and Bacon.
Gleitman, H., Friedlund, A. J. and Resisberg, D. (1999). Psychology. New York: Norton and Company, Inc.
Hall, E., Lamb, M. and Perlmutter, M. (1986). Child Psychology Today. New York: Random House.
Jersild, A. T. (1968). Child Psychology. London: Staples Press.
Smith, A. B. (1998). Understanding Children's Development A New Zealand Perspective. Singapore: South Wind Production.
Reber, A.S. and Reber, E. (2001). The Penguin Dictonary of Psychology. London: Penguin.