and atmospheres which promote learning”
Bruce T. and Meggitt C. page 73
Learning can be shaped by predictable processes e.g. Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning. Classical Conditioning is the way in which responses come under the control of a new stimulus. A well known example is Pavlov (1849 – 1936) who used dogs in his experiment. During my activity, I used this type of conditioning as I praised each child that gave an answer, whether right or wrong e.g. when given an incorrect response I enforced the correct response through different questioning i.e. “That is a really good try of how Handa felt and behaved, but how do you think YOU would feel when your friend turned up with a surprise?” This gave enforcement to children listening and tries to target others who are not focused.
Operant conditioning is concerned with shaping behaviour. An undesired behaviour could be negatively reinforced e.g. a child missing play time because of bad behaviour. This type of conditioning can produce quick results but is often limited to a particular situation and does not always help the child to transfer what they have learned to other situations.
The Psychoanalytic Theory by Sigmund Freud is that children learn naturally in a particular order. He suggested that 3 parts made up our personality – not all present at birth. The ‘id’ is the instinctive part governed by needs such as hunger. This is only present when born. The ‘ego’ has a planning role. It works out how to get the ‘id’s’ need’s met. E.g. smile to get cuddle, cry to get fed etc. This would also be used by children in my activity when we were trying to act out how each character might act and feel. The child trying to fulfill the task properly will be trying hard to ‘plan’ to get required attention such as “excellent” off the teacher. The ‘superego’ develops in later childhood as their maturity develops – it gives us our conscience and tries to control the ego.
Cognitive Theories are the belief that a child development depends on their interaction with other people and their environments and that children learn by building their own understanding of the world. A famous contributor to this theory is Jean Piaget (1896-1980). Piaget’s research in cognitive development led him to divide the intellectual development of children into 4 stages. (see appendix 6).
Piaget’s theories have often been criticized, and some researchers, especially those who specialize in behaviour, have suggested that a child’s development can not advance in stages, but moves along gradually, continuing at the appropriate rate for one particular child. Put more about Brunner hereJerome Bruner, however, has shown that five-six year olds can be taught conservation when encouraged to think about the problem, therefore solving it themselves.
“Piaget did accept this criticism, and modified his views about
the ages at which the different kinds of thinking occurred. He
had thought that children’s mental abilities changed at particular
ages, that is, 2, 7, and 11. These seemed to fit the ages of the
children he had observed and tested who were capable of
understanding the various games and tests he used”.
Davenport G.C. page 142
Cognitive(or thought) and language theories are thought to be closely linked. Some psychologists suggest that cognitive development is not possible without a language in which to process thoughts. There are four main theories on language development:
-
Imitation Theory – B.F.Skinner (1904) claimed that adults shape babies sounds into words and words into sentences. Skinner was a Behaviourist; he claimed that children learn language through operant conditioning. He stated children receive reinforcement for uttering certain sounds in the form of parental encouragement and approval through positive encouragement, body language and facial expressions. Parents will reinforce the sounds they recognise e.g. “dada” would be reinforced back to the child as “ daddy”.
“A behaviour followed by a reinforcing stimulus results
in an increased probability of that behaviour occurring
in the future”.
(25/11/03)
This is used many times with my activities when a child is repeated but in the correct grammatical sense i.e. “Handa cammed to the village she did”, was repeated back by saying “Yes your right, Handa came to the village, well done”.
However, Skinner also stated that the sound made by the child which were not reinforced when the parent did not recognise them were extinguished. i.e.
“A behaviour no longer followed by the reinforcing
stimulus results in a decreased probability of that
behaviour occurring in the future”.
(25/11/03)
As this statement states, a practitioner would not repeat “Yes Handa cammed”, in order to promoted correct speech.
However, Brown (69) criticised this theory. Skinner himself stated that parents would not reinforce sounds they did not recognise, therefore, Brown said that parents are only responding to a presumed meaning. Brain (71) and Tizard (72) also stated that trying to correct a child’s grammar had little effect as this followed later in language development. Likewise, mothers who continually corrected their child’s speech as opposed to relaying it back properly without placing guilt on the child for speaking incorrectly, actually hinders their language development (Nelson (73)).
-
Nativist Theory – Noam Chomsky challenged the imitation theory. He claimed that children have an innate “language acquisition device” present only in a human brain This device allows children to acquire language through an innate physical developmental programming, the process being automatic and in need of little outside stimuli – that they are born with a biological capacity for language. He stated it is part of genetic inheritance and that children can invent new sentences which had not been heard before. Chomsky stated that :
*babies are born with a predisposition to learn, talk
and listen
*children learn to talk because they are genetically
equipped to do so. They learn partially through the
people they meet and socilaise with.
Bruce, T. & Meggitt, C. Page 114
Research has shown that mistakes made by children when they talk are similar with children from different language backgrounds – including those who use sign language as a first language. When children first speak in an egocentric manner, they use the term “Me want….” As opposed to “I want…” which is the correct grammatical sense in the English Language that has to be learned. In some other languages, the term “Me want…” is acceptable. This gives important clues that children do have innate language rules. This is also one of the reasons that some people think that English is a hard language to pick up as a second language as it has many rules – more than other European languages; English Grammar is not thought to be an ‘innate’ where as the opposite has been thought of other languages.
-
Interactionist Theory – language acquisition viewed in context of cognitive development. Social environment is important for the development of language. This theory is backed by Piaget, Brunner and Vygotsky. Both Bruner and Vygotsky emphasised that language development does not occur in a vacuum, social interaction is vital for cognitive development, especially language and thinking. Children experience communication in a social context and although the vocabulary may be unfamiliar, the context of use is safe and comfortable and so language can be learned and understood. Cognitive theories are the belief that a child development depends on their interaction with other people and their environments and that children learn by building their own understanding of the world. In Piaget’s theory, learning emerges through the completion of the processes of development that occur in the sensori-motor stage. Language is intimately bound up with cognitive development.
-
Input Theory – this theory stresses the importance of language used by adults; particularly mothers (‘motherese’) where they use higher pitch, speak more slowly and with repetition.
Learning should be encouraged regardless of gender theories but with the teacher/parent aware of how a child learns best e.g. visually, audibly, kinesthetically, or a mixture of the three.
Life-style differences can make a difference on learning. Laing and Chazan, 1984, suggested that:
“…some children grow up within environmental and social
circumstances which may restrict the children’s opportunities
to explore their environment and develop through positive
and stimulating interactions with others e.g. poverty, race/culture
family size and parental background/low expectations.
Kamen T. Page 18
Expectations of children should be set at a level that is achievable for the child to move the on without pushing him/her too hard. This can harm the child by putting them off learning. For example, pushing a child into learning to read before they are ready may put them off reading and other related activities. All the ‘Early Learning Goals’ need to be met in order for the child to fully develop. However, it should never be assumed that a child “won’t be able to do” a certain task. Children can surprise you in what they know and can pick new concepts up quickly given the right conditions to optimize their learning.
To promote cognitive and intellectual development it is important to:
- see the child as an active learner
- offer a wide range of experiences
- use skilled observations to inform planning of the next step in the child’s learning”
Bruce T. and Meggitt C. Page 96
Learning through play
The Rumbold report (DES 1990) argued that the context of learning (where children learn) and the process of learning (how young children learn, the way in which children acquire the disposition to learn or are turned on to and tuned into learning) are as important as what they learn.
During the 1960’s and 1970’s, informal methods of teaching allowed teachers to base learning on the interests of the children and to pursue their own enthusiasms with them. This often lead to an unbalanced curriculum reflecting greater emphasis on the subjects which the teacher liked or felt more comfortable with as opposed to reflecting the subjects of a broad and balanced curriculum.
The coagulation of the 11+ test results showed that some school were performing way below the test marks of other schools and some children did not get access to some subjects.
“In 1980, only 5% of children in infant schools were being
specifically taught science as part of the curriculum”.
University of Birmingham Distance Learning Booklet (1996)
Page 6
Consultative by the Department of Education led to the Education Reform Act (1988) and the establishment of the National Curriculum. This ensured that all pupils were taught the same broad range of subjects from the age of 5- 15. It also set clear targets of attainment for teachers and pupils and introduced assessment and testing arrangements for these targets. This also gives parents accurate information of progress and performance of their child’s education. It also provides continuity from one year to the next. Clear objectives for schools are provided in order to improve overall standards – in particularly, to improve the standards of poor schools. A framework for formative and normative assessment is given along with guidelines for teachers to help them get the best results from each pupil. Parents now have a better idea of what their child is being taught in school and their attainment targets within this.
All the subjects studied in the National Curriculum aim to provide opportunities to promote children’s development. In particular:
- Spiritual Development
- Moral Development
- Social
- Cultural
Opportunities for learning these skills can be fitted into the planning of core and foundation subjects and other extra curricular activities. Circle time and assembly time also provide an excellent opportunity for children to think and reflect on other people’s beliefs and experiences. Communication, listening, thinking and all the key skills will be able to be effectively planned into the curriculum as many of these skills are universal.
The Foundation Stage was introduced later and covers education from 3 until the end of reception year. It prepares children for later schooling as a significant high proportion of learning takes place from birth to the age of six. (memory) The Foundation Stage is a crucial stage of life in terms of children’s physical, intellectual, emotional and social development. It provides a basis for life long learning and was implemented alongside the revised National Curriculum with Key Stage 1 programmes of study. The Foundation Stage has six areas of learning. They are:
- Personal, social and emotional development
- Communication, language and literacy
- Mathematical development
- Knowledge and understanding of the world
- Physical development
- Creative development
This links with the Rumbold Reports’ eight areas of learning: Within LEA maintained settings all plan their curriculum in areas of learning - most use the eight areas of learning outlined in the Rumbold report `Starting With Quality=:- Aesthetic and Creative, Human and Social, Language and Literacy, Mathematics, Physical, Science, Spiritual and Moral, Technology.
The Foundation Stage also sets out the Early Learning Goals which are what most children are expected to achieve in each area of learning before they progress into Year 1. This gives further guidance on what Reception and Nursery teachers need to help the children to achieve. The Goals have high expectations but are achievable with good quality provision, an appropriate curriculum and high, effective teaching. The teaching objectives in Reception Year of the National Numeracy and Literacy Strategies are in line with these goals. The achievement of children beyond the Early Learning Goals can be described using the level descriptions of the National Curriculum.
For schools to respond effectively to the National Curriculum, the school must work in close contact with the local community, parents and families, local churches and local businesses in order to achieve the curriculum’s two main aims which are:
- To provide opportunities for all pupils to learn and to
achieve.
- To promote pupils’ spiritual, moral, social and cultural
development and prepare all pupils for the
opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of life.
The National Curriculum (1999) Page 11
Conclusion
Bibliography
Bruce, T. and Meggitt, C. (2002)
Child Care and Education
Third Edition
Hodder and Stoughton
DfEE (1999)
The National Curriculum
DfEE
Natanson, J. (1997)
Learning Through Play
Ward Lock
Keen, J. (1992)
Language And The English Curriculum
Open University Press
Natanson, J. (1997)
Learning Through Play
Ward Lock
Wilkinson, A. (1986)
Language and Education
Oxford University Press
NDCS (1999)
Quality Standards in Education
NDCS
DfEE, (2005)
Teachers’ TV Issue March –May 2005
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www. freespace.virgin.net
