Goal setting theory is a technique which uses rewards and incentives in sport to increase levels of performance. Gill describes it as “Goal setting is one technique that may help ensure adequate incentives to enhance performance in sport settings” (Gill, 1986, p.157). The theory is that the incentives should be designed to give an individual something to aim for, but it is important that these types of incentives are effective and specific. “Goals appear to be most effective when they are specific, immediate and challenging. General goals such as “try harder” have little motivational value.” (Gill, 1986, p.157). This suggests that it is pointless making wide and unspecific goals because individuals will not react and gain motivation. Goals should be set to the participants needs and be something which is achievable or measured.
Key Principles Application Sport/activity practitioner
The following key principles can be applied to sport coaching
Personal Reflection
I have been a sports coach for 3 years and during this time I believe I have successfully motivated many participants. This in-depth look at different types and key components of motivation has given me an insight into how I have in the past used some of these theories in my coaching, how use this knowledge to further motivate participates in the future and the reasoning behind motivational skills work.
I believe that in the past I have used basic types of these motivational theories but I have not recognised myself using them. An example of this is that I have used vigorous experience. As I often use participants to give a demonstration to others but have never known it can help with confidence. I believe I can now use this knowledge of this type of motivation to greater effect.
This look at motivational theories has given me a lot to consider in terms of the different types of motivations and how they can be applied. I believe that in the future I must think about how these theories can be applied in a coaching environment to increase my participations motivation.
I think my main consideration and improvement in future coaching should be in connection with ‘Personal Accomplishment’. I feel that I must allow opportunities for participants to practise more rather than me telling them they can complete something. I can achieve this by giving more time and more space to participants to develop their skills during a session.
TOPIC 2- Learning
Principles
“A relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practise” (Nolen-Hoeksema, et al, 2009, p.703)
- Classical Conditioning
- Instrumental Conditioning
- Habituation
“Classical conditioning is a learning process in which previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus through repeated pairing with that stimulus” (Nolen-Hoeksema, et al, 2009, p.239). This theory of classical conditioning is based upon an experiment carried out by the scientist Ivan Pavlov. This form of learning is when a neutral stimulus becomes a conditional stimulus causing a certain conditional response after being repetitively presented with an unconditional stimulus. The experiment involved a dog being fed with food (Unconditional Response) whenever a light was turned on (Conditional Stimulus). After the link between the light being turned on and it being fed was made, the dog would start to salivate (Unconditional Response). Nolen-Hoeksema states this when she notes “Before conditioning, the unconditional stimulus causes the unconditioned response. During conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus are paired, and their association is learned. After conditioning, the conditioned stimulus causes a conditioned response” (Nolen-Hoeksema, et al, 2009, p.240)
“Instrumental conditioning involves learning the relationship between responses and their outcomes” (Nolen-Hoeksema, et al, 2009, p. 246). This theory of instrumental learning is based upon the idea that learnt behaviour is due to a certain change in an environment. An example of this is was an experiment carried out by Skinner. A rat was put inside of a box with a lever, when the rat pressed the lever, food was dispensed. This is known as the baseline level. Once the baseline level was achieved every time the lever was pressed by the rat, food was dispensed. The experiment showed that “the food reinforces bar pressing and the rate of pressing increases dramatically” (Nolen-Hoeksema, et al, 2009, p.247). But when the food was taken away, the rat realised only after pressing the lever a few times that no food was being dispensed and “the rate of bar pressing diminishes” (Nolen-Hoeksema, et al, 2009, p.247). This experiment shows that the environmental event which follows behaviour produces either an increase or decrease in the probability of that behaviour. This increase and decrease in behaviour is known as reinforcement. Nolen-Hoeksema describes it as negative and positive reinforcement and states “Reinforcement can be done by giving an appetitive stimulus (positive reinforcement) or by the removal of an aversive (negative reinforcement)” (Nolen-Hoeksema, et al, 2009, p.247). Positive reinforcement will encourage behaviour and negative reinforcement should decrease the behaviour.
Habituation can be defined as “The reduction in the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus” (Nolen-Hoeksema, et al, 2009, p.701). Habituation is based upon the theory that behavioural responses decrease to a stimulus over a certain period or time and amount of repetition. This decrease in behavioural response is due to lack of reinforcement throughout the continuous contact to the stimulus. The theory supports that after extended exposure to a stimulus the sensory system may stop sending signals to the brain about the repetitive stimulus. Cohen recognises this when he states “Sensory systems may stop, after a while, sending signals to the brain in response to a continuously present or often-repeated stimulus” (Cohen, et al, 1997. p.2886). An experiment to support the argument of habituation was carried out by Eric Kandle on fishes. It was designed to measure the “gill withdrawal effect, which can be elicited by gentle mechanical stimulation of the gill or surrounding tissue” (Nolen-Hoeksema, et al, 2009, p.259). During the experiment the gill was lightly stimulated with a water jet, at first when this was done the gill withdrew. However by the end results found that “repeated stimulation of the gill produces weaker and weaker withdrawal responses” (Nolen-Hoeksema, et al, 2009, p.259). This supported the theory that continuous stimulus decrease behavioural responses.
Key Principles Application Sport/activity practitioner
The following key principles can be applied to sport coaching
Personal Reflection
I have been a sports coach for three years and during this time I believe I have used some of these learning theories and have tried to construct my sessions using different learning methods to ensure my participants discover new skills, techniques and rules. I would normally do this through more basic types of learning and by gaining feedback from participants to see if I have been effective. Now with this in-depth knowledge and understanding on how these theories work and how to successfully use them in sport coaching I will in future be able ensure my participants learn quicker, in depth and more effectively. I believe in the future, I should consider using instrumental conditioning and my understanding of the link between positive reinforcement and behaviour to help my participants learn successfully and achieve a positive outcome. I will also need to focus on negative reinforcement and use this understanding to teach participants that negative behaviour is not accepted and this can again be achieved though instrumental conditioning.
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Reference
Cohen, T.E, Kaplan, S.W, Kandel, E.R. and Hawkins, R.D. (1997) ‘A simplified preparation for relating cellular events to behaviour: Mechanisms contributing to habituation, dishabituation, and sensitization of the Aplysia gill-withdrawal reflex’, Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 17, no. 8, April, pp,2886- 2899.
Gill, D.L. (1986) Psychological Dynamics of Sport, 1st edition, Champaign: Human Kinetic Books.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Fredrickson, L., Loftus, G.R. and Wagenaar, W.A. (2009) Atkinson & Hilgards Introduction to Psychology, 15th edition, Hampshire: Cengage Learning EMEA.