Ideal self: the self one actually is
Self-esteem: is the self-evaluate part of the self concept, the judgment children make about their overall worth.
Harter’s research: rate their appearance, behavior, school performance, athletic ability, and acceptance by other children and to assess how much each of these areas affected their opinion of themselves.
- The children rate physical appearance most important. Social acceptance came next. Less critical were schoolwork, conduct, and athletics.
- Children, at least in North America, judge themselves more by good looks and popularity. Indeed, in many studies, physical appearance consistently tops the list of contributors to self-esteem
Global self-worth – voluntary behavior:
Harter’s Research - self-esteem arises primarily from physical appearance and social support. The Harter self-perception Profile: testosterone treatments tended to improve boys’ perception of their athletic ability and estrogen increase girls’ ratings of their romantic appeal and the intimacy of their friendships.
Baseline vs. barometric self-esteem: Williams James suggested that there are two self-concepts: a core, or baseline, self-image that remains fairly consistent and a barometric self image that varies in different situations. This is especially true of adolescents; they tend to think more of themselves or less, depending on the people they are with-Harter.
Erikson’s view of self-esteem: saw self-esteem as a psychosocial development, the outcome of the stage of industry vs. inferiority
Research on self-esteem:
- 1Children’s positive or negative self perceptions at age 5 tended to predict their self perceptions and socioemotional functioning.
- Self esteem in early childhood tends to be all-or-non: “I am good” or “I am bad”
- Still, before the 5 to 7 shift, young children’s self esteem is not necessarily based on a realistic appraisal.
- Adolescent girls have lower self esteem than boys. Girls’ self confidence and self esteem stay fairly high until age 11 or 12 and then tend to falter.
Gender identity; awareness, developed in early childhood, that one is male or female gender-schema theory: cognitive approach, which combines elements of cognitive-developments and social learning theory. Bem’s, that children socialize themselves in their gender roles by developing a mentally organized network of information about what it means to be male or female in a particular culture.
Identification:
Imitation
Internalization standards and values from parents.
Chapter 13 - Moral Development
Moral Emotions: Emotions to the self are the last emotions to emerge, between 18 months and 3 years of age. The three of these emotions –shame, guilt, and empathy –are foundations of MD.
How does MD evolve? A sign of early MD may be a concern with flaws, or things that are out of place. MD is believed to have both psychosocial and cognitive roots and to begin early in life. According to Freud, the superego, or conscience, emerges ato age 5 or 6, marking the beginning of moral development.
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Guilt is directed at behavior; based on regret for having done wrong; Shame is directe at condemning or devaluing the self. Both arise form empathy: develops during or even before the second year of life. Empathy tends to be accompanied by Prosocial behavior: voluntary activity intended to benefit another person. Altruism is the most extreme form of prosocial behavior.
Self-evaluative emotions: -shame, guilt and empathy.
Erikson: saw both shame and guilt as healthy constrainsts on the self’s otherwise urges. In the stage of autonomy vs. shame and doubt, shame helps toddlers recognize the need for reasonable limits on their struggle for independence. In the stage of Initiative vs. Guilt, in early childhood, guilt puts the brakes on childish impulses that otherwise might have harmful results.
Conscience: includes both emotional discomfort about doing something wrong and the ability to refrain from doing it. Internal standars of behavior, which control conduct and produce emotional discomfort when violated. Superego or conscience emerges ay 5 or 6 marking the beginning of development.
Self-regulation: the ability to inhibit impulses and control one’s own behavior in the absence of immediate external controls –is essential o moral behavior.
Situational compliance: Kochanska’ terminology, a toddler’s obedience f a parent’s orders only in the presence of prompting or other signs of ongoing parental control.
Kohlberg’s theory and stages:
- First level preconventional morality in which control is external. They obey rules to avoid punishment or reap rewards, or act out of self interest
- Second level conventional morality in which standards of authority figures are internalized. They are concerned about being “good”, pleasing others, and maintain the social order.
- Third level in which people follow internally held moral principles. People recognized conflicts between moral standards and make their own judgments on the basis of principles of right, fairness and justice.
- View was that before people can develop a fully principled morality, they must recognize the relativity of moral standards.
Piaget theory of moral development
He believed that children develop concepts of fairness and justice through interaction with peers –competing, cooperating, and sharing. Kohlberg saw peer interaction as only one form of relevant social experience. All social relationships, according to Kohlberg,, offer opportunities for social role-taking –taking the perspective of others and thus stimulate moral development.
Piaget proposed that moral reasoning develops in three stages:
- First stage, corresponding with the preoperational stage is based on obedience to authority
- Second stage, corresponding with concrete operations is characterized by increasing flexibility and some degree of autonomy based on mutual respect and cooperation.
- Third stage may become capable of formal operations. Equality takes on a different meaning for the child
C. Galligan: On the basis on research on women, she argued that Kohlberg’s theory is oriented otward values more important to men than to women. According to CC women see morality not so much in terms of justice and fairness as of responsibility to show care and avoid harm.
Discipline: tool of socialization, which includes methods of molding children’s character and of teaching them to exercise self control and engage in acceptable behavior.
Spanking: is a corporal punishment (or power assertion) that is used to experience pain, but not injury, for the purpose of correction or control of the child’s behavior
Induction: are designed to induce desirable behavior (or discourage undesirable behavior) by reasoning with a child; they include setting limits, demonstrating logical consequences of an action, explaining, discussing, and getting ideas from the child about what is fair.
Prosocial values:
Aggression: three types: instrumental; used as a means of achieving a goal. E.g. taking a toy away. Hostile: intended to hurt a person. Overt: that is openly directed at its target.
Bullying: when is deliberately, persistently directed against a particular target: a victim who typically is weak, vulnerable, and defenseless. / Intervention Programs: in grades 4 through 7 in Norwegian schools cut bullying in half and also reduced other antisocial behavior. This was accomplished by creating an authoritative atmosphere marked by warmth, interest, and involvement combined with firm limits and consistent, nonphysical punishment. Better supervision and monitoring at recess and lunch time, class rules against bullying, and serious talks with bullies, victims, and parents were part of the program.
Antisocial Adolescent behavior: Youth violence, drug abuse, and delinquency.
Chapter 14 Peers, Schooling, and Media
Babies interest in other children
Toddlers show interest in people outside the home, particularly people their own size. About 1 year babies are learning to walk and to manipulate objects, they pay more attention to toys and less to other people. About 1 ½ years of age to almost 3, they show more interest in what other children do and an increasing understanding of how to deal with them.
Preschooler play / benefits: about age 3 children generally begin to play together Preschoolers usually like to play with children of their own age and sex. They tend to become friends with a few other children with whom they have had positive experiences and whose behavior is like their own. BENEFITS: It contributes to all domains of developments. Through play, they stimulate the senses, coordinate sight with movement, gain mastery over their bodies, and acquire new skills, they learn new ways of thinking.
Trends in play In the USA, children’s lives today are more tightly organized than they were a generation ago.
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Social dimension whether they play alone or with others. And content what children do when they play.
- Piaget and play / levels
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Functional play: In Piaget’s and Smilansky’s terminology, the lowest cognitive level of play, involving repetitive muscular movements (such as rolling or bouncing a ball).
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Constructive play: second cognitive level of play, involving use of objects or materials to make something (such as a house of blocks or crayon drawing).
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Pretend play: the third cognitive level, involving imaginary people or situations; also called fantasy play, dramatic play, or imaginative play.
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Formal games with rules: fourth level, involving organized games with procedures and penalties known to all participants.
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Imaginative play: called fantasy or dramatic play, rests on the symbolic function, which emerges during the last part of the second year, near the end of the sensorimotor stage. Children try out roles, cope with uncomfortable emotions, gain understanding of other people’s viewpoints, and construct an image of the social world.
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Parten’s study: identified 6 types of early play, ranging from the least to the most social. She found as children get older, their play tends to become more social –that is, more interactive and cooperative. At first children play alone, them alongside other children and finally together.
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Parallel play (such as working on puzzles near another child) was most common among children who were good problem solvers, were popular with other children, and were seen by teachers as socially skilled. It reflects independence and maturity or simple preference.
- Associative play
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Rough and tumble play: vigorous play that involves wrestling, kicking, tumbling, grappling and sometimes chasing, often accompanied by laughing and screaming. Most boys like it than girls.
Mid-childhood => Impact of peer group
Popularity
Controversial child
Rejected child
Robert Selman => types/stages of friendship: five overlapping stages: stages 0 or 1 (momentary playmates or one-way assistance). Most school-age children are in stage 2 (reciprocal friendship based on self-interest). Older children, from about age 9 up, may be in stage 3 (intimate, mutually shared relationships). Stage 4, autonomous interdependence . Children respect friend’s needs for both dependency and autonomy.
Friendships in adolescence: They rely more on friends those on parents for intimacy and support
Kindergarten / successful
Self-efficacy: sense of capability to aster challenges and achieve goals.
Social capital: family and community resources upon which a person can draw.
Authoritative parenting: parenting style blending respect for a child’s individuality with an effort to instill social values.
Homework
ADHD: Syndrome characterized by persistent inattention and distractibility, impulsitivity, low tolerance for frustration, and inappropriate overactivity.
T.V. watching / media usage: US children and adolescents spend an average of more than six hours a day on media, the largest part on tv.
- Too much tv can promote obesity and deprive children of needed sleep.
- Tv tends to transmit stereotyped gender roles and recreational attitudes toward sexual activity.
- Although certain television programs ca foster prosocial behavior, mos models seen on television are aggressive or violent. Exposure to real or televised violence can trigger aggression.
Active engagement: involvement in schooling.
