Ivan Pavlov, B. F. Skinner and Albert Bandura provide a basic framework for behaviourist models. With this view all development is a process of learning. Ideas that behavioural reactions are the results of stimuli, namely events or experiences. It should be noted that some responses are automatic like blinking to bright light and salivation when smelling food. There is the notion that any behaviour that seems to be deeply rooted or inborn may be results of unconscious learning (Berger 1998, p36)
Jean Piaget (1898 – 1980), was considered a major pioneer in cognitive theory. With the understanding of how people think it also reveals how they interpret experiences and form an understanding of the world. These understandings or expectations form attitudes, beliefs and in turn behaviour. Piaget argued that at each stage people develop ways of thinking about ideas and objects. Learning is accomplished by processes of organization and adaption. Berger (1998, p.43) states the four stages to the cognitive theory. ‘Birth to age 2 in which infants use their senses and motor skills to understand their world, second stage from ages 2 to 6 in which children are able to think symbolically and understand some features of past and present. Third stage from ages 7 to 11 in which school age children think in concrete and real thoughts, they are unable to grasp abstract situations. Age 12 onwards is known for hypothetical, logical and abstract thought’.
The notion exists that all people continually attempt to make sense of new experiences by reconciling them with their existing understandings. The other side of the cognitive theory is the perception of a “Processing Theory” which likens human thinking the same way that a computer processes information. They are able to access and store huge amounts of information, and analyze situations in terms of problem solving skills. The attempt to understand the mental structures and strategies of thought, and to appreciate the internal need for new ones when old ideas become out dated, is the key concept of the cognitive mode of thought (Berger 1998, p 43).
The Humanistic approach is often based on reactions to psychoanalytical and behaviorist theories, the most common belief is that the answers are to be found in consciousness or experience. There are two streams of Humanistic behaviour, Proper as represented by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and George Kelly. The second is existential as depicted by Ludwig Binswanger and Viktor Frankl (Turner& Helms1995, p54).
Turner and Helms (1995, p.) emphasizes the individual’s uniqueness, personal potential and inner drives. A persons self concept and maximization of human potential are paramount concerns of this school of thought. The idea that people are not bound by taught behaviour or by the environment that they are free and creative and capable of growth and self-actualization. Abraham Maslow born in New York in 1908 is considered to have developed the humanistic theory. There are two main theories confined in the school of thought. Maslow’s heirachy of needs, a concept that people have less obvious needs than biological or psychological needs, the need for uniqueness and full development of self, the idea that needs are met on the basis of priority, from food and security to love and then esteem. Roger’s self-concept theory ‘maintains that people can become fully functioning human beings only when they are given the freedom and emotional support that enables them to grow psychologically’ (Turner& Helms1995, p55). That people have two parts, the ones we are and the ones we would like to be.
Individual differences
Usually when we talk about someone’s personality, we are talking about what makes that person unique from other people. As people we are all unusual, and because of this we progress at different rates and learn in different styles and ways. There are many reasons how, why, where and when we learn. Pellone (1991, p.2) says ‘Many different theories, primarily concerned with questions of how the mind works in relation to the learning process, have been proposed by psychologists over the years’
In Piaget’s cognitive framework, the process of acquiring knowledge begins at birth, the ‘sensorimotor period’, begins with inborn reflexes, to an awareness that things exist without always being in sight. The ‘pre-operational period’ covers the stage of language acquisition, and a more conceptual view of the world. The ‘concrete operational period’ develops a person’s capability of logical mental activities and the ‘formal operational stage’ characterizes the capacity to reason in abstract terms (Pellone 1991, p.3).
A very influential behavioural approach to learning was the work of B.F. Skinner in the 1940’s. The central notion of Skinner’s work is that animals and human beings depend wholly on the reward and punishment system. Hence the intrinsic belief that motivates humans and animals to get the reward we do the desired behaviour. Pellone (1991, p.2) says ideally a teacher tells a student whether or not they have given the correct answer (feedback), praises them for giving a correct answer (positive reinforcement), or prompts the ones who may need a hint to answer a question (cueing).
Gestalt psychologists or cognitive psychologists place great emphasis on the problem solving aspect of thinking. The learner’s discovery of patterns, relationships and the transferring of knowledge to new problems. This type of learning is called schematic which uses previously learned ideas and concepts in order to understand and simplify new learning (Pellone1991, p.2). Other terms it’s known as constructivism, based on the assumption that learning is an active process involving the construction of new knowledge and concepts on the basis of existing knowledge. Active learning has been developed in response to cognitive theories of learning, and suggests that students will be more motivated and have a better understanding of material through there own discoveries.
The cybernetic theory of learning is perhaps the most recent formulated position and holds that different types of learning should occur by means of different processes. Pellone(1991, p.4) states ‘The cybernetic theory of learning leads us to accept that learners, environment and learning processes are varied and complex… and that learning occurs by means of different processes and it is possible that different learners learn the same material by approaching it from different angles’
Other learning theories include Andragogy (adult learning) a theory for adults based on needs of self-direction and self-responsibility through experimental learning and problem-solving (Knowles 1984, p.1). Experimental learning that arises from experience, a process of observation, reflection, conceptualization and experimentation (Kolb1984, p.1). Phenomenography a perspective on learning which studies qualitative variations in the way different individuals experience or learn from situations. The task is to change ones relationship to the world in order to experience it differently (Marton 1997, p.1).
Coupled with learning theories are learning styles, which include detail learners who pick up details quickly, but experience difficulty viewing the whole picture. Main idea learners who overview but fail to support information. Active learners, who question the question, have a tendency to jump to conclusions. Passive learners require a great deal encouragement while analytical learners need structured learning.
There are other factors which affect the way we learn and process information, these including mental ability, anxiety levels, current knowledge and skills, attitude to learning, and the amount of personal resources which includes time and sense of achievement.
Boys and girls have individual differences, they go through many changes as they become mature and more competent as learners. Girls interact better than boys at a younger age and also learn to walk and talk earlier. Legge (May, p.1) writes ‘Twins Mitchell and Cassandra Burrows were born just minutes apart and do everything together- but the differences in the 15-month-old toddlers’ development could not be more pronounced’.
Understanding Adults and Adolescents (pedagogy vs andragogy)
An enduring question for educational research is the effect of individual differences on the efficacy of learning. Aspects of individual differences that have been much explored relate to differences in learning styles, strategies and conceptions of learning in adults and adolescents. It can be argued teachers should be more flexible in their methods and ideally adopt more than one theoretical teaching approach. When designing materials for a given group of adult or adolescent learners, designers typically carry out needs analysis or profile of learners in order to ascertain the prior knowledge, motives, background interests, attitudes and experiences of learners
Learning styles and development of adolescents vary to that of an adult. Although the basic principles and learning styles are similar, variations are noticeable in their attitudes, prior knowledge and motivation. Pellone (1995, p.68) ask us to think about two sets of assumptions: one he labels “pedagogy” concerned with the theories of youth learning and “andragogy” which relates to adult learning. Pedagogical model is teacher-directed which gives the teacher the full responsibility for making all decisions about what, how and where it will be learned. The andragogical model is a student-centered model which considers the self-directing nature of adults, their previous life experience, and their readiness to learn when they perceive a need to know or do something.
A young learner’s previous life experience or prior knowledge is of little value as a resource for learning. What they learn in the classroom is the experience from their teacher and textbooks. Adults enter with a wealth of personal experience so a greater emphasis is placed on experimental techniques like group discussions, simulation exercises and problem-solving activities.
Motivation of the young learner primarily comes from external pressures from parents and teachers. The adult learner is responsive to external factors which may include promotions and salary increases whilst their internal factors are motivated by self-esteem, better quality of life, and greater self confidence. (Pellone 1995, p.70).
The younger the student the more dependant the student will be on the teacher. The teacher is expected to take full responsibility for making decisions about what, how and when learning should occur. Adults however have a self-directing nature and feel responsible for their decisions and lives. They resent situations in which they feel others are imposing their wills on them.
A young learner will be ready to learn when they are told by their teacher to do so in order to advance to the next level. An adult learner will be ready to learn once he distinguishes a need to know, or do something in order to perform more effectively in some aspects of their lives. Their readiness to learn is stimulated when they assess the gaps between where they are now and where they want and need to be (Pellone 1995, p.69).
Teachers and trainers need to have a sound understanding of the development in adolescents and adulthood. Adolescence is a time of many transitions both for teens and their families. To ensure that teens and adults navigate these transitions successfully, it is important for both to understand what is happening to the teen physically, cognitively, and socially. While all teens develop into young adults, they won’t all follow the same timeline.
Adolescents face a major task in creating a stable identity to become complete and productive adults. Over time adolescents develop a scense of themselves that transcends the many changes in their experiences and roles. They find their role in society through active searching which leads to discoveries about themselves.
Conclusion
Many theories exist which try to explain the process of learning. Each, more than others, tends to emphasise certain aspects of the teacher-learning process. Focusing on selected learning theories and implementing teaching strategies to suit the individual’s needs will often influence the learner’s readiness to learn and their academic journey through life.
Reference List
Berger, K. (1998) Theories and methods. In The developing person through the life span. 4th edn. New York: Worth. Pp.29-50.
Boeree, G. (1997). Personality Theories
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Knowles, M (1984). The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species 3rd edn. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing
Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential Learning: New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc
Legge, K 2005, ‘Mitchell and Cassandra: together apart’, The Australian, 17 May.
Martin, F. & Booth, S. (1997). Learning and Awareness. Mahwah, N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Pellone, G 1991. ‘Learning theories and computers in TAFE education’. Australian Journal of Education Technology, vol. 7, no1, pp.39-47.
Pellone, G 1995. ‘Education software design: A literature review’. Australian Journal of Education Technology, vol. 11, no1, pp. 68-84.
Turner, J. and helms, D (1995) Humanistic theory. In Lifespan development. 5th edn. Forth Worth: Harcourt Brace. Pp.68-70.
Wu, S. (2005). Psychology: Erikson’s Eight Stages of Human Development
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