Hypothesis 2: Low levels of organizational commitment will result in graduates practising more career self-management behaviour aimed at furthering their career outside the organization.
Hypothesis 3: Graduates' engagement in career self-management behaviour aimed at furthering their career outside the organization will result in lower levels of organizational commitment.
Conversely, organizational commitment might encourage individuals to perform the kind of career management practices, such as seeking out an influential mentor, which will help further their career in their current organization (Arnold, 1997). This is especially likely to be the case at the present time, where many organizations indicate that they expect their staff to play a role in managing their careers (Adamson, Doherty, & Viney, 1998; Gratton & Hope Hailey, 1999).
Hypothesis 4: Higher levels of organizational commitment will result in graduates practising more career self-management behaviour aimed at furthering their career within the organization.
Since organizational career management and career self-management activities aimed at furthering the career within the organization can be complementary activities (Orpen, 1994), both intended to aid the career development of an individual within the organization, it is probable that there is a close relationship between them. Indeed, earlier research has suggested that, if graduates are to manage their own career successfully, they need assistance from their employers to give them the skills and confidence to do so (Noe, 1996; Fournier, 1997). Therefore, one would expect there to be a positive link between getting career management help from the organization and practice of internally focussed career selfmanagement. In turn, this type of career management activity, if successful, is likely to bring graduates to the attention of influential, more senior, managers, putting them in position where they are likely to attract even more help from the organization in the future (Arnold, 1997).
Hypothesis 5: Graduates who receive career management help from their employer will be more likely to practise career management behaviour aimed at furthering their career within the organization.
Hypothesis 6: Graduates who practise career management behaviour aimed at furthering their career within the organization will receive more career management help from their employer.
However, if graduates do not receive adequate career management help from their employer, this is likely to be a source of dissatisfaction (Pitcher & Purcell, 1997; Mabey, 1986). As a result, they may have little option but to take the management of their career into their own hands and do things aimed at finding a new job in another organization.
Hypothesis 7: Graduates who do not receive career management help from their employer will be more likely to practise career management behaviour aimed at furthering their career outside the organization.
Method
Sample and procedures
Data were obtained from a sample of graduates in the first ten years of their career. The graduates worked for five large UK organizations, four in the private sector and one in the public sector. All of the organizations would be considered to be among the top graduate recruiters in the UK. Each organization was asked to distribute up to 150 questionnaires to graduate recruits still in their employment with varying degrees of tenure. (Unfortunately, it was impossible to get accurate information from all the organizations about exactly how many questionnaires they sent out.) Within each organization, the graduates worked in a number of different functional areas, and had engaged in different kinds of graduate training and development, depending on their area of work.
Data were collected at two points in time 12 months apart. A total of 212 graduates completed questionnaires at both time 1 and time 2. The sample consisted of 63.2 per cent men and 36.8 per cent women with an average age of 26.31 at time 1. The graduates worked in a full range of managerial functions, including general management, marketing, sales, finance and technical roles.
Organizational career management
The graduates were asked to indicate to what extent they had experienced different kinds of organizational career management help. These included 'formal' interventions, such as being given training to help develop their career, being taught things they needed to know to get on in their organization, and being given a personal development plan, as well as 'informal' help, such as being given impartial career advice when they needed it, and being introduced to people who might help their career development. The career management interventions included were chosen to reflect the range of career management practices which might be available to graduates working in contemporary organizations (e.g. Arnold, 1997). Responses to the ten items were provided on a five-point scale which ranged from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5).
Career self-management
The graduates were asked to indicate to what extent they had practised a range of career selfmanagement behaviours. These included activities most likely to be aimed at furthering their career within the organization, such as: networking behaviours, for example, getting introduced to people who could influence their career development and building contacts in areas where they would like to work; and visibility behaviours, for example, making sure that they got credit for the work they did. Activities most likely to be related to furthering a career outside the organization, such as monitoring job advertisements and making plans to leave if the organization could not offer a rewarding career, were also included. The items used were developed with reference to existing measures of career self-management (e.g. Gould & Penley, 1984; Noe, 1996) and literature which has discussed what this might involve in the context of the 'new' career (Stickland, 1996). Responses to the 16 items were provided on a five-point scale which ranged from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5).
Organizational commitment
Organizational commitment was measured using Cook and Wall's (1980) nine-item scale, which covers the affective dimension of organizational commitment and has been extensively used and validated in the UK. Responses were provided on a seven-point scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7). Sample items included 'I am quite proud to tell people who I work for', 'I feel myself to be part of the organization' and 'To know my own work had made a contribution to the good of the organization would please me'. The Cronbach alphas obtained for the scale were 0.70 at time 1 and 0.73 at time 2.
Demographics
Questions relating to the demographic variables of gender, age, tenure, income and highest qualification were included in the questionnaire that the respondents completed. Information was also provided about the employing organization.
Analysis
The items which related to organizational career management and career self-management practices were analysed at time 1 using principal component factor analysis with varimax rotation. The factor analysis identified two factors for organizational career management. The first was a six-item scale which related to 'formal' career management practices, such as receiving training and skill development. Sample items included, 'I have been given training to help develop my career' and 'I have been given a personal development plan'. The Cronbach alpha obtained for this scale was 0.77 both at time 1 and at time 2. The second was a four-item scale which related to 'informal' career management practices, such as getting career advice and being introduced to the 'right' people at work. Sample items included, 'I have been introduced to people at work who are prepared to help me develop my career' and 'I have been given impartial career advice when I needed it'. The Cronbach alphas obtained for this scale were 0.80 at time 1 and 0.81 at time 2. Individual items and factor loadings for the organizational career management measures are shown in Appendix 1.
Four discrete factors related to career self-management emerged from the time 1 factor analysis. Two measures of individual career management behaviour aimed at furthering the career within the organization were identified. The first was a seven-item scale which related to 'networking activities', such as building contacts and pushing to be involved in high profile projects. Sample items included, 'I have got myself introduced to people who can influence my career' and 'I have built contacts in areas where I would like to work'. The Cronbach alpha obtained for this scale was 0.74 both at time 1 and at time 2. The second was a two-item scale which related to 'visibility activities', that is, behaviour aimed at drawing attention to an individual's achievements. The items were 'I have made sure I get credit for the work I do' and 'I have made my boss aware of my accomplishments'. The Cronbach alphas obtained for this scale were 0.80 at time 1 and 0.68 at Time 2. One scale related to individual career management behaviour aimed at furthering the career outside the organization was found. This was a two-item scale which concerned 'mobility oriented behaviour', that is, getting into a position to leave the organization if it would benefit the individual's career. The items were 'I have made plans to leave this organization once I have the skills and experience to move on' and 'I have made plans to leave this organization if it cannot offer me a rewarding career'. The Cronbach alphas obtained for this scale were 0.78 at time 1 and 0.76 at time 2.
The analysis also identified a fourth career self-management factor, which related to doing practical things to assist career development, but since the items it contained (such as keeping a CV up-to-date, reading work-related journals and books, and getting extra qualifications) might be used both to further a career within and outside an organization, it was decided not to use it in the subsequent analysis. This decision was further supported by the low Cronbach alphas obtained for this scale (0.63 at time 1 and 0.56 at time 2). Individual items and factor loadings for the career self-management measures are shown in Appendix 2.
Paired t-tests were conducted using the career management factors identified and the measure of organizational commitment used to determine whether there were significant differences in these measures between time 1 and time 2. Means, standard deviations and correlations among the study variables at time 1 and time 2 were calculated.
The testing of the hypotheses was achieved using panel regression analyses (Finkel, 1995) to assess the extent to which a variable measured at time 1 (for lagged effects) predicted change in another variable between time 1 and time 2. Contemporaneous effects were also tested by simply replacing the independent variable X at time 1 with the measure of X at time 2. The hypotheses were tested for both lagged and contemporaneous relationships, in order to achieve greater confidence about the causality of the study variables. The contemporaneous, as well as the lagged, findings are presented in this paper, in order to compare contemporary relationships between variables, as well as effects over time, and to provide a reference point for relevant cross-sectional studies (e.g. Jaros, 1997; DeCotiis & Summers, 1987). This panel data technique has been used elsewhere to investigate the antecedents of organizational commitment, reverse causation and the analysis of lagged and concurrent relations with organizational commitment (Meyer & Allen, 1988; Meyer, Allen, & Gellatly, 1990). All analyses included time 1 control variables. The control variables of gender, age, tenure, income, qualifications and employing organization were included in the regression analyses. These items allow us to control for the individual and organizational factors that have been shown in previous research to have an influence on organizational commitment (Meyer & Allen, 1997) enabling us to focus on the 'work experience' variables associated with aspects of career management. Dummy variables were used for the control variable of employing organization; Organization 2, whose graduates had the highest levels of organizational commitment, was used as a referent for the remaining four organizations in the analyses.
Results
Table 1 shows the results of the paired t-tests conducted on the five career management scales and the organizational commitment measure.
Organizational commitment showed a significant decline between time 1 and time 2 (t1/4-4.92, p<0.01). Experience of formal and informal organizational career management help were also both significantly lower at time 2, compared with time 1 (t1/4-4.13, p<0.001 for formal career help; t1/4-3.20, p<0.01 for informal help). Networking activities were significantly higher at time 2 than at time 1 (t1/42.07, p<0.01) and mobility orientated behaviour was significantly lower (t1/43.53, p<0.01). Although visibility behaviour increased slightly, the change was not significant (t1/41.72, n.s.)
Table 2 shows the means, standard deviations and correlations for the time 1 and time 2 study variables while Tables 3 and 4 show the results of the regression analyses.
Hypothesis 1 suggested that graduates receiving career management help from their employer would report higher levels of organizational commitment. Table 3 shows that, in the lagged analysis, none of the organizational career management variables at time 1 is significantly associated with organizational commitment at time 2 (beta1/40.04, n.s. for formal help, and 0.11, n.s. for informal help). The contemporaneous analysis in Table 4 shows that, after controlling for commitment at time 1, there is a significant association between formal career management help and organizational commitment (beta1/40.19, p<0.05) but not for informal help (beta1/40.12, n.s.). There is therefore only limited support for Hypothesis 1, based on the contemporaneous test.
Hypothesis 2 suggested that lower levels of organizational commitment would lead to more externally oriented career self-management activity, now labelled mobility oriented behaviour. There is significant support for this hypothesis in both the lagged data (beta1/4 -0.20, p<0.05) and in the contemporaneous data (beta1/4 -0.37, p<0.001). It is therefore confirmed within this study.
Hypothesis 3 suggested that those who engaged in externally oriented career self-management would report lower organizational commitment. There is no support for this in the lagged data (beta1/40.01, n.s.) but there is the expected negative association between mobility oriented behaviour and commitment in the contemporaneous analysis (beta1/4 -0.28, p<0.01). This provides partial support for Hypothesis 3, albeit on the basis of the contemporaneous test.
Hypothesis 4 suggested that higher organizational commitment will lead to more internally oriented career self-management. With respect to networking activities, this is supported in both the lagged analysis (beta1/40.18, p<0.05) and in the contemporaneous analysis (beta1/40.14, p<0.05). For visibility activities, it receives no support, either with the lagged analysis (beta1/4 -0.01, n.s.) or with contemporaneous analysis (beta1/4 -0.04, n.s.). There is therefore partial but inconsistent support for this hypothesis.
Hypothesis 5 suggested that greater organizational career management help would be associated with more internally oriented career self-management. More formal organizational career management help was not associated with either more networking (beta1/40.06, n.s.) or with more visibility activities (beta1/40.10, n.s.) in the lagged analysis. However, in the contemporaneous analysis, while there was no support for a link with networking (beta1/4-0.12, n.s.), there was a significant association with visibility activities (beta1/40.22, p<0.01). For informal organizational career management, the lagged analysis again showed no significant association with either networking (beta1/40.02, n.s.) or with visibility activities (beta1/40.06, n.s.). However, in the contemporaneous analysis, there was a strong association between informal help and networking (beta1/40.30, p<0.001) but not with visibility activity (beta1/4-0.09, n.s.). There is therefore some limited support for the hypothesis based on the contemporaneous analysis and a suggestion, to which we return in the discussion, that formal and informal help are associated in different ways with networking and visibility activities.
Hypothesis 6 suggests that internally oriented career self-management behaviour will result in more career management help from the organization. Looking first at networking behaviour, in the lagged analysis, there is no association with formal career management help (beta1/40.08, n.s.) but a significant association with informal help (beta1/40.17, p<0.05). In the contemporaneous analysis there is a significant negative association with formal career management help (beta1/4 -0.13, p<0.05) but again there is a strong association with informal help (beta1/40.24, p<0.001). For visibility activities, there is no association with formal (beta1/4 -0.01, n.s.) or informal help (beta1/4 -0.03, n.s.) in the lagged analysis. However, in the contemporaneous analysis there is an association between engaging in visibility activities and the amount of formal career management help received (beta1/40.14, p<0.05) but no association with informal help (beta1/4 -0.06, n.s.). Again there is partial support for the hypothesis and further evidence that networking and visibility activities are associated with formal and informal organizational career management in different ways.
The final hypothesis, hypothesis 7, suggests that low levels of help with career management from the organization will lead to higher levels of externally oriented career self-management (mobility oriented behaviour). However, the results show that there is no association between levels of either formal organizational help (beta1/40.02, n.s. for the lagged, and beta1/4-0.08, n.s. for the contemporaneous analysis) or informal organizational help (beta1/4 -0.02, n.s. for the lagged, and beta1/4 -0.02, n.s. for the contemporaneous analysis). We can therefore reject this hypothesis.
Discussion
The aim of this research was to examine the causal links between forms of career management and organizational commitment using a longitudinal design. As part of this process we developed and validated robust measures of organizational career management and career self-management. The sample consisted of graduates with between one and ten years experience drawn from five large UK organizations who were surveyed at two points 12 months apart.
The core hypothesis was that, despite the contemporary discussion and advocacy of career self-management, organizational career management activity would enhance commitment to the organization. A complement to this was the hypothesis that a neglect of organizational career management would lead to enhanced career self-management. In fact, the longitudinal analysis revealed little support for either hypothesis. Indeed organizational career management at time 1 was not associated with either organizational commitment or any form of career self-management at time 2. However, formal organizational career management activities at time 2, and by this we mean activities such as training and development, are associated with increased organizational commitment and increased visibility activities, a form of career self-management. Also, informal organizational career management at time 2, typically taking the form of mentoring and help in establishing contacts, is associated with an increase in the overlapping career self-management activity of networking. Therefore, contrary to the expectation that career self-management will act as a substitute for organizational career management, there is a hint of a virtuous circle where one reinforces the other.
There is further support for this notion of a virtuous circle when we review the reverse links.We then find that networking activity at time 1, a form of career self-management, is associated with more informal organizational career help at time 2; in addition, at time 2, networking is associated with a significant increase in informal organizational career help. Furthermore, career self-management activities at time 2 associated with enhancing visibility appear to succeed in that they are associated with a significant increase in formal organizational career management help. The implication of this is that those who possess networking skills use them to increase access to mentors, to sources of advice and to further contacts, while those who take action to enhance their visibility are more likely to receive an increase in formal help such as training, a development plan and work designed to develop competences. In other words, those who start out with career self-management skills give themselves a head start in gaining access to organizational sources of career support. At the same time, there is a risk to organizations in that networking activity at both time 1 and time 2 is associated with greater mobility oriented behaviour at time 2. This suggests that networking activities are likely to extend outside the organization, reinforcing the importance of retaining commitment to the organization.
Mobility oriented behaviour is the third form of career self-management identified in this study. Such activity at time 1 is not associated with lower commitment at time 2. One possible explanation is that it was spotted by the organization and some action was taken to retain the relevant graduates. Also, by definition, the survey does not include those whose mobility oriented behaviour at time 1 led them to leave the organization. Some support for this is found in the association between mobility oriented behaviour at time 2 and a significant reduction in organizational commitment. It is possible that if the organization takes action, the mobility oriented behaviour will cease. If this is the case, it again implies that another form of career self-management, perhaps seen as a variant on visibility, is successful. More generally, it appears that reactions to current experiences have the stronger effect on changes in reported commitment or career management than experiences in even the relatively recent past.
We turn finally to the role of organizational commitment. Organizational commitment at time 1 is associated with more internal networking and less mobility oriented behaviour at time 2. Both associations remain significant in the contemporaneous analysis at time 2. What this seems to indicate is that existing levels of organizational commitment have an impact in reducing mobility oriented behaviour, the form of career self-management that seems most likely to lead to graduates leaving the organization, and at the same time has some influence on networking activity which may further encourage graduates to stay in the organization. This raises the important question of what determines variations in organizational commitment. In this study we have explored the role of organizational career management and, contrary to expectation, found that over time it does not predict levels of organizational commitment. However, we did find an association between the amount of formal career management reported at time 2 and significantly increased levels of organizational commitment at time 2. Although the study hypothesized that career management would have an impact on organizational commitment, it is just one among a range of possible work experiences and organizational characteristics that have been identified in past research. It was not a primary purpose of the study to explore the range of possible antecedents. However, we should note that there is a strong negative association with tenure as well as evidence, as we might therefore expect, that levels of commitment declined between time 1 and time 2. This decline in commitment between time 1 and time 2 would seem to relate to the external context of the graduates' careers. At the time that the data were collected, the UK graduate job market was buoyant; organizational commitment often decreases when the job market is favourable (e.g. Bateman &Strasser, 1984).
A further feature of the study is the strong finding that tenure is associated not only with lower commitment but also with lower levels of mobility behaviour. It may be that after a while graduates opt for exit or voice (Hirschman, 1970). In other words, some will engage in mobility behaviour and leave, some will engage in mobility behaviour and get a satisfactory internal response while others may have tried it and had no success, leading them to give up on such behaviour despite their reduced commitment. They stay and grumble or they stay because life in a large organization is relatively comfortable compared with what they perceive the alternatives to be. Clearly this is speculation and more research is needed to test these interpretations.
We can speculate on why we failed to find clear support for the hypothesized relationship between career management and organizational commitment. It could be the case, for example, that the effect of these two variables on each other is moderated by the graduates' perception of whether the career management help which they receive aids their career development. Again, further research is needed to explore whether organizational career management help only makes graduates feel committed to their employer if they perceive that their career benefits in some way as a result.
The distinction between the different kinds of career management activities identified by Kossek et al. (1998), and investigated in this research, appears to be a valid one. Furthermore, different forms of both organizational career management and career self-management had different antecedents, correlates and consequences, reinforcing the value of considering them separately. It follows that organizations may need to be more explicit about the kind of career self-management activities they wish to encourage graduates to pursue, and perhaps provide guidance and assistance to encourage them to pursue them if they do not wish to prejudice their commitment. The findings indicate that 'informal' career management assistance, in the form of provision of career advice and help with building a network, may be of particular importance, yet graduates receive considerably less of this than 'formal' help.
The research also confirms that those who do things to further their own career get more organizational help as a result. This is not surprising, since a key aim of career self-management is to put an individual into a position where they are more likely to be singled out as someone suitable for future career development from their employer (Arnold, 1997; Stickland, 1996). However, this finding supports the conclusion that successful career management should be the result of some kind of career partnership between the individual and the organization (Orpen, 1994). It also suggests that there may be the potential for employers to create a virtuous circle of organizational and individual career management activities which facilitate graduates' career development.
It is important to note the study's limitations. Firstly, the findings are only based on questionnaire data, which means that they may be subject to common method variance. Future research could usefully employ different research methods in order to confirm the conclusions drawn by this study. Secondly, the study only surveys those graduates who have remained with their employer. Further research is needed to confirm whether similar relationships exist between career management and commitment for those graduates who leave their employer early in their career. Thirdly, the research was conducted at a time when the job market for graduates in the UK was increasingly buoyant. The possible effects of this on the graduates' organizational commitment have already been discussed. Given this, the external environment may also have had an impact on the results, especially those which relate directly to organizational commitment. It would be interesting, therefore, to test the same hypotheses again when the labour market was less favourable.
Conclusion
While this study has failed to show a direct causal link between organizational career management and commitment to the organization, it has shown the importance of aspects of career self-management for enhancing organizational help in career management. Those who do more networking appear to attract more informal help, while those who increase their visibility report increased formal career support. The study has also confirmed the negative association between organizational commitment and mobility oriented behaviour. Finally, it has reinforced the importance of distinguishing between types of organizational career management and types of career self-management. More research is needed to confirm these distinctions and to set career management alongside other work experiences as antecedents of organizational commitment among graduates.
In policy terms, the findings confirm the importance of career self-management and of selecting people who appear to have the capacity for engaging in relevant self-management behaviour. However, employers must be mindful of how exactly they might encourage graduates to behave in such a way as to promote their careers with them, rather than outside the organization, if they wish to maximize retention early in the career without encouraging graduates to believe that they have a career for life. It may be that the career management help they give them should focus more on 'informal' activities, rather than formal training and development, if they wish to encourage graduates' career self-management activities. Since, as this research has shown, getting this informal kind of help can be dependent on graduates' own networking activities, the possibility exists to make career management a reciprocal partnership between individual and organization. Such a virtuous circle should also be in graduates' interests, since they need to manage their own career, if they want it to progress, either inside or outside the organization. The challenge for organizations is to create such a virtuous circle through which they nurture staff who are committed and prepared to manage their own careers in a way that benefits both individual and organization.
Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge the support of the Careers Research Forum in undertaking this work, and the help provided by the graduates who participated in the research by completing questionnaires.
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Organizational Context
The Organizations
The sample was drawn from five large UK-based organizations, all considered to be amongst the top graduate recruiters in the UK. Each ran a dedicated graduate training scheme for its graduate recruits. Organization 1 was a privately owned telecommunications company which employed graduates in a wide range of managerial and technical specialist roles. The graduates who participated in this study all worked in the organization's technical division. Organization 2 was a privately owned airline, which recruited graduates into a range of functional roles. The graduates who participated in this research worked in a number of business functions, including finance, procurement and general management. Organization 3 was a bank which recruited graduates to work as managers in its branch network and as functional specialists in its headquarters. Their sample was drawn from both of these sources. Organization 4 was a food manufacturer, which recruited graduates for a range of functional specialties. The research participants from this firm worked in business functions which included marketing, operations management and sales. Organization 5 was a public sector organization. The graduate sample from this organization were participating or had participated in its fasttrack general management graduate development scheme.
The Time Frame
Data were gathered in the UK in 1998 and 1999. During this time, the country was in a state of economic boom. In addition, the market for new and experienced graduates was sustaining strong growth, as a result of both an expansion in the kind of businesses recruiting graduates and in the type of jobs graduates were thought suitable for. These factors combined to mean that many organizations were experiencing difficulty in retaining their graduate recruits. For example, research conducted by the UK Association of Graduate Recruiters in 1998 showed that the average UK organization had held onto 50 per cent of their graduate recruits five years after they joined (Perryman & Jagger, 1998).
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