Alternatively Barge (1993) cited by Jones et al (1992) argues that HRM processes provide a ‘fundamental break from a systems driven approach of the past’. The adoption of Total Quality Management systems verifies this argument. It intends to restructure working relations, encouraging two-way communication and team working, Hill (1991) cited by Wilkinson (1992). For example Wilkinson (1992) argues the ‘supervisory climate’ created in this form of team working, can support and develop employees, reducing fear of failure encouraging ‘active co-operation rather than simple compliance’.
However this essay argues that instead, Korzynski (2002) is correct in proposing that it is evident that ‘new forms of Bureaucratic systems of control exist through the empowerment of IT systems and consumers, equating to lose of control for the front line worker’. This is especially prevalent within the private sector such as the manufacturing industry, as the greater empowerment of machines to improve efficiency often equates to worker job displacement, Knights and McCabe (1999). Therefore Delbridge and Turnbull (1992) suggests that it is ‘not the jobs that are homogenised but the worker’s ability’.
Consequently in reality ‘empowerment and participation are a loose rhetoric and the reality is a greater degree of control over work’ Mcardle (1995). Fuller&smith (1991) strengthen this argument suggesting it ‘deepens and complicates authority and power relations in the workplace, and may also give rise to new forms of workplace conflict.’
This essay therefore argues implementing a high degree of ‘technocratic-principles’ IT systems parallel Taylor’s methods of control, such as the empowerment of technology in substitution of worker. Thus standardising routines means autonomy is removed and indispensability reduced Knights and McCabe (1999).
Therefore suggesting limited change has occurred in relation to adopting a more humane approach within working environments compared to past schemes. For example the public service sector is still suffering from the privatisation era, at the end of the 1990s 600,000 co-operations had been privatised, therefore suggesting many organisations may still not be fully adapted to new bureaucratic policies resulting form the transformation Micks et al (2005). Making it difficult to concentrate on in-cooperating humane activities.
Thus suggesting that the Human Relations movement has done little to make the workplace more humane, but simply provided a regression back toward Taylor’s ideologies; a rigid ‘one-best way’ approach; which ignorantly suppresses the implementation of HR practices and more productive approaches of empowerment, such as ‘collective negotiations’, which accept differing interests of the employer and employee. Therefore Jones et al (1997) suggests Hyman’s (1987) theory is a more realistic one. Stating that there is actually no ‘one best way’ but simply ‘routes to failure’ when dealing with the power struggle between employer and employee control. Delbridge (1992) cited by Blyton (1992) strengthens this argument, suggesting that employee’s power is undermined due to psychological contracts such as ‘life-time employment’ and ‘seniority’ based payment systems of which tie workers to a firm.
Exploitation and intensification:
Consequently these reformed methods of capitalist control resulting from Total Quality Management lead to enhanced exploitation and intensification of workloads.
Some argue these elements are even more predominant within elements of Business Process Re-engineering, Valentine and Knights (1998). Rhetorically employees involved in a radical Business Process Re-engineering program should experience ‘the breaking away from anachronistic work methods and be empowered, because of this ‘dynamic and robust’ approach to re-organisation’ Davenport and Short (1990) cited by Valentine and Knights (1998).
This is evident in Hammer’s (1990) study of Business Process Re-engineering in practice; he noted a 150 per cent improvement in on-time deliveries in purchasing at Hewlett-Packard. Although this appears to improve operational efficiency, no empirical evidence is provided by Hammer in reference to improving worker relations such as empowerment.
Thus in reality Valentine and Knights (1998) are correct in assuming that employees are thus deceived; ‘viewed as passive recipients of change; rarely involved in decision making.’ Instead they view empowerment as ‘a necessary by-product, led by executives, reproducing the authoritative hierarchy of senior management.’
This form of exploitation is reflected by Blyton’s (1992) ‘management based on blame’ theory in relation to Just-in-Time systems implemented in Japan. According to Turnbull (1992) Just-in-Time adopts an ‘employee-centred’ approach; ‘developing each individual through humane HR strategies and successfully adopting McGregor’s democratic Theory Y approach to management.’
Contrastingly this essay argues otherwise in two ways. Firstly acknowledging the theory that the ‘Japanese out-Taylor us all’, Blyton (1992) citing Schonberger (1982). Furthermore he argues exploitation is evident in their use of quality circles. ‘Involving individuals to the extent where ideas are thoroughly discussed followed by agreeing a high degree of autonomy’ Ferner (2000) subsequently offering freedom to implement new ideas, is overly optimistic.
Team-working is utilised as a means of peer pressure, in order to humiliate and exploit workers by exposing blame onto individuals in front of their peers. For example Blyton (1992) citing a Japanese employee stated ‘it’s about 10 people sitting around, putting one person in the middle to be shouted at and humiliated’. Suggesting quality control is utilised as a means of discipline not simply to improve product quality. Secondly workers are exploited through blame through a system of deceptive surveillance and monitoring. Yamamoto (1990) cited by Blyton (1992) provides evidence of this, discovering that within some Japanese co-operations ‘spy rings’ are employed within work groups, to report deviant behaviour of others inside and outside of work, to trace faults to individual. These systems are now being adopted by Western Industries; for example Delbridge (1991) reported that Nissan UK employs a ‘neighbour-watch system’. Therefore indicating that HR practices are willingly adopted by management; used as newly disguised forms of exploitation.
This paper argues that it’s this exploitation that then intensifies work for the individual, as workers seek to rectify problems to counteract peer pressure, therefore are more inclined not to let fellow team members down; effectively becoming more obedient unknowingly, Solanti and Gennard (2004).
Management then take advantage of this by reducing the resources and staffing levels in accordance to reducing costs, while demanding increased output through appealing to pride, institutional loyalty and insecurity. Authority and real power move upward while accountability is forced to lower levels Parker and Slaughter, (1993) cited by Knights (1999).
Organisations need to ensure that attention is still paid to the basics of the employment relationship Conway and Monks (2008). Trade Union presence has increased humanity in the workplace to a degree, such as restoring a balance between the ‘wage-effort’ bargain Fox (1996) cited by Korzynski (2002). Too much focus on innovation and pressure for creativity, results in stress and de-motivated unproductive workers Solanti and Gennard et al (2004).
Dissatisfaction and Resistance:
However some may argue that a decline in union recognition and membership since 1979 suggests new sophisticated Human Resource Management practices have increased individualism, and thus all employee-employers are working in harmony within the service industry (Brockett 2007).
However Brockett’ s study can not be taken by face value. Decline is largely due to the increase in periphery worker contracts within the service sector, designed to develop these ‘flexible’ firms, rather than conformity of employee and management satisfaction, Korzynski (2002).
Therefore to increase worker satisfaction Pascale and Athos (1982) cited by Turnbell (1992) suggest that management should be highly involved within each individual lives. Alternatively intrusion of personal lives leads to lack of trust, pushing the boundaries. "HR must create an environment that is conducive to the satisfaction of both the employee and the company and the outcome of this is that while people are employed within a particular place they are happy there" Raub and Alvarez (2006).
Furthermore Raub and Alvarez (2006) supports this with their findings from two very different public sector organisations suggesting that there is a persistent lack of trust in senior management. The findings have important implications for managing the workforce; including sufficient lack of trust leading to disloyalty and increased absenteeism Pate and Beaumont (2007). However the overall assumption that performance, quality and satisfaction of all workers can be successfully measured when delivering an intangible service is naive.
However this essay doesn’t completely reject the idea that Human Relations can’t make the workplace anymore humane. It can be argued standardisation, a ‘by-product of Human Relations movement’ is becoming of greater importance in service work in order to increase efficiency of service, and thus benefit employer-employee alike, increasing wealth entering the business. Therefore standardising elements of the service industry through the introduction of ‘technocratic support systems’ Levitt (1972) e.g. databases showing consumer profiles in insurance call centres, is vital as employee’s expected to be more flexible at responding to simple yet variable queries Zeithnal and Bitner (1996). Therefore accessing information efficiently, empowers employees by generating ‘self-control’ Biggert (1989) cited by Korzynski (2002) by allowing individualistic decisions to be made on the front line Bowen and Lawler (1992) cited by Korzynski (2002). Therefore an element of consistency and control is achieved without retaining direct control over interactions Jones (1997).
On the other hand in reference to Just-In Time systems, the major purpose of standardization is to facilitate the Kaizen tactics, finding the ‘one-best’ way Blyton (1992). However as the Japanese approach also seeks to excel and find ‘better-ways’, the extra stress and expectation of individual’s to intervene in production and rectify changes on their own could lead to work intensification, whilst simultaneously introducing technological systems, standardizing job roles leading to insecurity, mirroring Taylor’s technique of exploitation if a pay conditions or similar benefits fail to support their new responsibility resulting in worker resistance. Nyl (1995).
In the context of the hospitality industry, the importance of HRM is even more noticeable. The industry is labour intensive, working conditions are far from ideal. Moreover, employees are at the core of the hospitality operation form a key source of differentiation, determining as they do the guests' service experience Raub and Alvarez (2006). Suggesting worker satisfaction is a vital source of success.
Conclusion:
In conclusion as a result of pursing this essay it has been argued that the Human Relations movement of the 21st century has not been fully successful in transforming the workplace into a humane one. Offering cautious sceptism into any argument claiming that the Human Relations movement has totally transformed workplace relations into a totally fair humane environment. It has been concluded that in reality these perspectives are largely based on rhetoric ‘naïvely optimistic’ unitary assumptions that are unrealistic within today’s ‘quality-focused’ industries.
It has demonstrated this in three ways. Firstly showing that the Human Relation programs are simply a new opportunity for capitalist management to enhance control over workers, whilst supposedly empowering the individuals. This was validated through considering the implementation of Total Quality Management procedures.
Secondly it was argued that flexibility and team working in reality resulted in increased peer pressure utilised to exploit workers thereafter intensifying work as employees seek to rectify problems for the team.
Thus thirdly the unitary theorists fail to recognise that this pressure placed on workers to act more efficiently and creatively, in conjunction with standardising their job roles results in lack of management trust and insecurity and consequently resistance and dissatisfaction. This was demonstrated through the implementation of demanding Just-In-Time programs. All three arguments focusing on the manufacturing and service sector industries in particular.
In my opinion the most significant factor in this essay is to recognise conflict as an inevitable component of employee relations that will affect the degree of management acceptance of the movement and degree of power struggle ultimately affecting the development of humane practices.
Thus in a wider context management must be proactive, and identify, measure, and manage these internal elements that produce conflict at work, to thus compromise and resolve conflict in order to benefit employer and employee.
This essay doesn’t completely reject the positive effects Human Relation movement has had on making the workplace more humane. It emphasises to management that employee recognition is an increasingly important aspect to incorporate into business operations, and does offer some delegation and flexibility.
However there are limitations to this paper’s argument vital evidence is subject to scrutiny, as the research literature largely focuses around private sector service organisations such as hospitality, call centres and manufacturing industries. Further exploration is certainly needed, exploring empirical evidence within public service sectors, in order to evaluate the actual degree of credibility and transformation that Human Relation Movement has had on resolving rigid non-humane practices and organisation’s interpretation of employee relations in the 20th century.
Word Count 2,744
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