IMC can boost sales by stretching messages across several communications tools to create more avenues for customers to become aware and ultimately to make a purchase.
Carefully linked messages also help buyers by giving timely reminders, updated information and special offers which, when presented in a planned sequence, help them move comfortably through the stages of their buying process.
IMC also makes messages more consistent and therefore more credible. This reduces risk in the mind of the buyer, which, in turn, shortens the search process.
Consistent images and relevant, useful, messages help nurture long term relationships with customers. Here, customer databases can identify precisely which customers need what information when... and throughout their whole buying life.
Finally, IMC saves money as it eliminates duplication in areas such as graphics and photography since they can be shared and used in say, advertising, exhibitions and sales literature. Agency fees are reduced by using a single agency for all communications and even if there are several agencies, time is saved when meetings bring all the agencies together - for briefings, creative sessions, tactical or strategic planning. This reduces workload and subsequent stress levels - one of the many benefits of IMC.
Barriers to IMC
Though the awareness about IMC is on the rise, implementation has been slow. The following “barriers’ are some of the reasons why the implementation has been low:
Despite its many benefits, Integrated Marketing Communications, or IMC, has many barriers.
Lack of Top Management Support - Without top management support, it’s hard for any plan or project to be successful. Some of the managers still think that the marketing budget gets diluted and effectiveness suffers if multiple tools are employed or even fail to see that they can reach the target audience via multiple media channels not just the traditional ones often used.
Lack of Manpower - Small businesses do not usually have the manpower with the correct skills to integrate their marketing communications. The implementation requires proper planning, redefining the scope of marketing communication, application of information technology and financial and strategic integration.
Changes needed in the organization - To implement the IMC process effectively, a company needs to follow certain guidelines. It should adopt a flexible organizational structure and change the mindset of the employees. It should adopt a customer-centered strategy to design communication campaigns from the consumer perspective. A two-way strategy is needed, that enables coordination and cooperation between various departments in the organization. This is sometimes easier said then done as rigid organizational structures are often “infested” with managers who protect both their budgets and their power base.
Can damage brand if improperly managed – an example of marketing communications that have gone wrong is the Strand Cigarette case. Stand was a popular brand of cigarette until an advertising campaign was launched. The headline of the campaign was “You are never alone with a Strand” and pictured a man that was always alone. The message was intended to portray that Strand cigarettes was a cigarette that you could rely on. But the campaign had a negative affect on consumers who had he impression that if they smoked Strand cigarettes that they would not have any friends.
This example shows how things can go wrong but shows the need for pretest marketing communication to eliminate any misconceptions that may be caused.
Most of the barriers that relate to HR and organizational changes can be overcome by training the staff. There is a natural resistance to change in people but with proper change management, the anxiety and fear of change can be put aside.
The Pickton and Broderick Model
There are four key components that make up the model:
- The sender is the creator of the message.
- The message is the actual information and impressions that the sender wishes to communicate.
- The media are the channels used to communicate the message. Without this there would be no communication between sender and receiver. Media can take many different forms, for example, T.V and radio.
- The receivers are the people who receive the message. These people could be the target audience but marketing communications are also seen and heard by others than those the organisation has targeted. When the receiver has received the message they may take no action or decide to purchase the product or service and have word of mouth communication with others.
The challenge of marketing communications is to communicate the right message, in the right way, to the right people, in the right place, at the right time.
The communication process isn’t always smooth running and things do go wrong. This process occurs in an environment where disturbances, called noise, might affect the message and its transmission to be received differently than intended by the sender.
The message is subject to noise such as, inconsistency and broken promises of the brand, conflicting messages from competitors as well as message clutter in general. The feedback from the target audience, in form of purchase or not reveals whether the message was understood as intended or disturbed by the noise
According to Pickton and Broderick (1995), “due to the clutter the world is experiencing today, marketers need to integrate their marketing communication in order to break through the barrier of noise to reach the target market.”
Communication Models
For the purposes of using theories of communication to help plan integrated marketing communications, it is useful to trace the development of these theories from the Lasswell Formula (1948).
The Lasswell Formula (1948)
Lasswell identified that all forms of communication are comprised of four components:
Source: Lasswell, 1948.
Lasswell’s formula is useful but too simple. It assumes that the communicator wishes to influence the receiver therefore sees communication as a persuasive process and that the message always has effects. The model excludes the need for feedback in communication, which would be an important part of the process.
Shannon and Weaver (1949)
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver produced a general model of communication, this is now known after them as the Shannon-Weaver Model. The information theory was initially developed to separate noise from information-carrying signals.
The Shannon and Weaver model suggests that all communication must include six elements:
- A source
- An encoder
- A message
- A channel
- A decoder
- A receiver
This model of mass communication advances upon Lasswell in a number of ways and is regarded by some as the most important development of communication theory (Johnson & Kare, 1961).
Gerbner (1956)
Instead of a signal or statement going directly from the source to the destination like other models, Gerbner shows that in mass communication people in control of the medium, who edit the message and provide the means for distribution, influence the signal. Gerbner is also concerned with the physiological processes, which affects the way each communicator responds to and interprets events and signals.
The Event is shown by the circle E, and the person M1 who wishes to convey the message about the event is shown to have a personal perception E of the event, according to the context, availability of information and the personal selection. When M1 prepares a statement for publication they have to take into account what channels can be used and the control exerted by the media. After preparation and editing, the signal is then ready for transmission and is shown by the circle SE (statement about the event). The receiver M2 then has a personal perception SE of the statement.
Gerbner also includes provision for feedback and the consequences of communication in his general theory.
Westley and MacLean (1957)
In the Westley and MacLean model the information is gathered from sources (A) that then passes it on to the gatekeeper (C). In the role as gatekeeper, the editor makes the ultimate decision to include or exclude the information. This decision is likely influenced by several factors, including the editor’s attitude toward the information and demographic influences. Once published, the consumer (B) either accepts or rejects the information. They may provide feedback to the source (A) or the gatekeeper (C). However, since the gatekeeper controls the flow of information, if irrelevant influences cause the gatekeeper to view the information negatively, it is likely the consumer will receive the information in a negative context – or not receive the information at all.
There are three key aspects to the model. One is that the model sets the communicator in the context of a system, which recognizes the roles of sender, channel and receiver of messages. It also recognizes the flow of feedback between parties in the system. The second aspect is that this model is a co-orientation model which addresses the interaction between roles in the system, and is therefore much more helpful than a simple linear model of communication. The third is that the model is a dynamic model that reflects the management of information about events, and the negotiation of messages between different roles, including feedback loops.
Osgood and Schramm’s Model of Communication (1954)
This model depicts an alternative process of communication. This model conceives of communication as a circular, possibly endless process, which occurs between two actors of mutual equality. In contrast to the Shannon and Weaver model, this model suggests that the organisation sending the message as well as the intended receiver engage in a process of decoding, interpretation and encoding.
Schramm (1954)
Schramm recognised that the absence of feedback was the weakest part of the Shannon and Weaver model and decided to develop this model of communication, which recognises inferential feedback and places the process of communication within a social context. Instead of conceiving of communication occurring within a vacuum comprised of only the sender and receiver, this model includes the social environment in which all communication occurs. Additionally, this model conceives of mass markets as comprising of social networks through which marketing communications are transmitted and spread by word of mouth communication.
Aristotle’s Model of Communication
Aristotle’s speaker-centered model was filled with advice on the full training of a “good” speaker-statesman.
The model proposed by Aristotle is a linear one. Aristotle tells us that we must consider three elements in communication:
- The speaker
- The speech
- The audience
Berlo’s S-M-C-R, 1960
The simplest and most influential message-centered model came from David Berlo. This is essentially an adaptation of the Shannon-Weaver model.
The four parts of Berlo's SMCR model are -- no surprises here -- source, message, channel, receiver.
Conclusion
Messages sometimes fail to accomplish their purpose for many reasons. Frequently the source is unaware of receivers and how they view things. Certain channels may not be as effective under certain circumstances. Treatment of a message may not fit a certain channel. Or some receivers simply may not be aware of, interested in, or capable of using certain available messages.
Here is a summary of the important thoughts illustrated by each model:
Lasswell: An effect must be achieved if communication takes place.
Shannon and Weaver: Semantic noise can be a major communication barrier.
Gerbner: in mass communication people in control of the medium, who edit the message and provide the means for distribution, influence the signal
Westley and MacLean: realized that communication does not begin when one person starts to talk, but rather when a person responds selectively to his immediate physical surroundings.
Schramm: Overlapping experiences make it easier to communicate successfully
Aristotle: The receiver holds the key to success.
Berlo: Several important factors must be considered relating to source, message, channel and receiver.
From looking at a different range of communication models it’s easy to see a pattern recurring of which is sender, message, media, receiver. All models are based on this basic outline but many over time have added other things that affect the communication process. One major factor adopted in the models was the consideration for noise affecting the communication process. Theorists discovered that not all messages were reaching the target audience and further research explained the noise was a contributing factor for example a phone ringing, other people talking to the target audience and other messages getting in the way.
This model shows how marketing communications work from the sender of the communication to the receiver of it. Feedback was also considered as communication is not always considered to be a one-way process. Once the message had reached the targeted audience feedback may occur for example a call to action.
In the Pickton and Broderick Model of the marketing communication process there are more key elements compared to other more simple models of sender, message, media and receiver. Pickton and Broderick have expanded the receiver box to show that people receiving the message may be member of the target audience or non-members as marketing communication are often see and heard by others who initially haven’t been targeted. The receivers then may take no action (this particular occurs with the people who weren’t necessarily targeted) or a varity of different actions may be taken for example purchase.
Another element which has been added to the model is the communication loop which recognises that communication can be a two way process.
The receiver response is another element of the model. These may include attitudes and behaviours to the communications for example if a customer has perceived quality and loyalty for the brand. It’s the receiver responses that create the brand equity.
Cooper and Simons describe brand equity as:
“The strength, currency and value of the brand…the description and assessment of the appeal of a brand to all the target audiences who interact with it.”
The time period element recognises that brand equity has to be built up and will often change over time and responses to marketing communications can relate to that.
The idea that successful communication depends upon the receiver has been shown throughout the models. As a communications source, we can spend a lot of time preparing messages and in selecting channels, but if the receiver doesn't get the message, we haven't communicated.
It's as Aristotle said 300 years before the birth of Christ: "For of the three elements in speech-making -- speaker, subject, and person addressed -- it is the last one, the hearer, that determines the speech's end and object."
References
accessed 20/11/08
- accessed 23/11/08
- accessed 20/11/08
ABC of Communication Studies
By David Gill, Bridget Adams
Published by Nelson Thornes, 1998
Integrated Marketing communications
By David Pickton and Amanda Broderick
Second Edition
The Journal of Mass Communication, 1957, Vol. 34 pp31–38 accessed 19/11/08
Handouts and lecture notes
