Square Pegs and Round Holes! - managing change

University Degree Business and Administrative studies

Square Pegs

and

Round Holes!

In a world where the only constant is change, business managers strive to improve the performance of their subordinates by through increased efficiency and effectiveness. It is the function of a manager, regardless of level, to attain organisational goals through the effective production of goods and services through effective planning, organising, leading and controlling, using the available resources. During the past century management styles and methods have developed as apart of the continuing battle to improve the performance of staff and enable the organisation to remain competitive in a business world that has become global and diverse where continual development and improvement are the main aims.

The organisations, as depicted by classical theorists such as Max Weber, Frederick Taylor and Henri Fayol, tended to support local markets, have a homogeneous workforce, used mechanical based technology. The main focus was that of profit in a culture that primarily concentrated on ensuring economic stability and efficiency within the workplace through autocratic leadership approaches and specialisation of labour. In today’s business world where the market is global and electronic technology plays a major role, not only for information and communication but also for production, marketing, design and development the constant need to improve productivity and performance has led to a business world of chaos and change. For a business to survive in this dynamic climate where the customer needs are paramount, new management and working methods are required. There is now much greater emphasis on team working, empowerment and de-centralised decision making. Organisational theory would suggest that the more participative style resulting from the above should produce an enhanced and highly committed workforce where every member of the organisation, regardless of position, is valued for their contribution where they are treated fairly and with respect. Yet in the reality of the today’s business world, in many organisations, chaos overshadows effectiveness, fire-fighting takes precedence over controlled and structured decision making and the most common ailment affecting the workforce is not a physical one, but a mental one, that of stress. The business world has produced more advanced products, and every day, a new variation on an old theme can be seen within our shops. We so are flooded with such variety and choice it is simply stressful attempting to make purchase decisions! Has this world of substantial advancement and increased provision of goods and services arisen out of enhanced management techniques or have we simply become more proficient and re-inventing and varying the wheel while wading through marshes of pressure and incompetence that leave us mentally drained? In order to assess this, the writer will review the role of leadership, which has developed and evolved during this period of immense organisational change.

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Leadership can be defined as the ability to influence a group towards the achievement of goals. It may be formal, such as that provided by the possession of managerial rank within an organisation and as such, an individual holding this position will have with some degree of formally designated authority. Not all leaders are managers nor for that matter are all managers, leaders. Although a manager will have certain formal rights to direct the actions of others there is no assurance that they will be able to do so effectively. Often non-sanctioned leaders have the ability to exert influence over others out with the formal structure of the organisation and can have influence over the direction of the group. Studies by Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne Studies have shown the effect that influence, out with the management structure, can over-ride prescribed rules within organisations. These studies were fundamental to the development of new working methods and styles where there is greater emphasis on team working and participation by subordinates in the decision making process and a reduction in the number of managerial levels within business organisations. However, as the premise above suggests that these new methods may not have produced the effective business organisations with motivated staff that was anticipated. Have attempts to improve effectiveness, by increasing employee involvement in managerial work in organisations, placed square pegs in round holes? Do all individuals possess the necessary characteristics and abilities to perform the range of roles now expected of them?

Margaret Thatcher, often singled out for her leadership style was described as confident, iron-willed, determined and decisive. These are known as traits, which are distinguishing features or characteristics of an individual. Research into the Traits Theory of Leadership resulted in inconclusive results in providing a definitive list of traits found in a manager, it did produce findings that if a leader possesses the following traits they may increase the likelihood of success for the leader. None of these traits however guarantee success.

Ambition and energy

The desire to lead
Honesty and integrity
Self-confidence
Intelligence
Job-relevant knowledge.

Although there is no definitive list, Traits Theory has provided a framework of characteristics, that when part of a manager’s emotional make-up, might help in creating a work atmosphere that promotes a positive working culture. American psychologist, Douglas MacGregor, researching motivation, produced two opposing management styles: Theory X and Theory Y. Where a Theory X manager tended to view subordinates as needing tight control and supervision, a Theory Y manager supported the premise that people, basically energetic, keen and reliable, will seek responsibility, but need support and clear direction to enable them to perform effectively. In other words, a manager with traits similar to those above, and adopting a Theory Y approach would be more likely to create a working environment that motivates and encourages subordinates to pursue success and achievement of targets and goals.

Early style and behaviourist theorists attempted to prove that how a manager behaved had a link to subordinate performance. They suggested that, by adopting a people orientated leadership style a manger could improve worker performance. Further studies in leadership behaviour, such as those conducted by the University of Michigan: The Ohio Studies, identified that managers are prone either to consider the needs of people or to consider structure, rules and organisation in the pursuit of organisational goals. These studies also showed that, although as individuals, we may be born with certain characteristics, it is possible, through training to develop the additional styles that may be required when managing. This research was one of a number of studies that showed although a manager should adopt a more favourable attitude toward staff, such as that suggested by Theory Y, management is not only about people, but also managing capital and material resources, tasks and activities within the workplace. A successful manager would therefore need to have appropriate skills to deal with the full range of managerial activities.

However, leadership success is more complex than isolating a few traits or preferable behaviours instilled within an individual carrying out leadership activity. This, coupled with the failure by researchers to obtain consistent results on which traits and the appropriate behavioural styles, has led theorists to a focus on the situations that a leader may face and the appropriate skills required to deal with these. Several approaches have emerged that attempt to describe such situations and appropriate leadership style that should be used. Although classified as a behavioural theorist, British Management Training Expert, John Adair, through his Action Centred Approach to management identified that a manager’s function is to ensure that the needs of the team, an individual within the team and the task are appropriately dealt with when required. He also stated that the managerial skill required for each may be different and that a successful manager was one who could recognise the need requiring attention and deal with it effectively. Hersey and Blanchard’s, in their Situational Model of Leadership, argue that successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right leadership style, which is dependent on the level of the subordinates readiness. Readiness refers to the extent to which people have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task. Hersey and Blanchard identify four specific basic leadership styles:

Telling - This involves a high degree of guidance but little support is offered in the social sense.
Selling - Here the followers are not allowed to participate but an attempt is made to convince them that the policy in question is the right one i.e. there is an attempt to sell the policy to them.
Participating - Here followers are encouraged to decide for themselves how to do things and are given encouragement.
Delegating - More autonomy or freedom is given, a kind of laissez faire approach.

From the above it may be suggested that successful leadership and management may result when a leader has the ability to correctly interpret the situation in which the leader and team find themselves, and that the leader can handle the situation effectively, through using appropriate skills and behaviour.

Recent leadership studies come under the category of Neo-charismatic theories. These theories have stress symbolic and emotionally appealing leader behaviours and attempt to explain how certain leaders are able to achieve extraordinary levels of follower commitment. Leaders can be identified as follows:

Charismatic leadership – People follow this type of leader because they view the leader as being heroic and having extraordinary leadership abilities. Examples of individuals frequently cited as being charismatic leaders include John F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King. A study that attempted to identify personal characteristics of the charismatic leader has isolated five characteristics. Charismatic leaders have a vision, are willing to take risks to achieve that vision, are sensitive to both environmental constraints and follower needs and exhibit behaviours that are out of the ordinary (that differentiates charismatic leaders from non-charismatic ones).

Transformational Leadership - Transformational leaders pay attention to the concerns and developmental needs of followers and change the followers’ awareness of issues by helping them to look at older problems in new ways and are able to excite, arouse and inspire followers to put in extra effort to achieve group goals.
Visionary Leadership – This is when an individual has the ability to create and articulate a realistic, credible, attractive vision of the future for an organisation, which grows out of and improves upon the present.

The Neo-charismatic theories identify leaders as being those people who have the ability to create, solve problems, be dynamic, communicate effectively and understand the way in which to promote excellence within their staff. In short, appropriate traits and style, whilst recognising the needs of a people within a given situation help a leader improve effectiveness.

Square pegs in round holes! Business organisations, through electronic technology, globalisation and increasing needs for new product development and diversity, have evolved. Working practises within these has altered considerably from the traditional approaches of hierarchy and specialisation. Through research, we are more aware of the factors, leadership styles and behaviour that could promote effective working relationships within organisations. Yet stress and employee turnover is high, whilst employee morale and job satisfaction low. Three factors might contribute to people issues within the workplace. Firstly, we expect so much more from staff. They no longer carry out a specific skill or function. Instead we are now expected to carry out a range of activities, assist in the decision-making processes and constantly review both ourselves and work and continually improve what we do. This increased level of activity is as likely to create anxiety as it is effectiveness, especially if organisation when moving in this direction have done so without providing adequate training and development to round of the edges of the square pegs. Secondly, we know what makes an effective leader and recognise that this is a fundamental function of a manager. Can some negative issues in the workplace be attributed to poor leadership? Evidence would suggest that inadequate job analysis and review, coupled with poor selection methods may be responsible for the appointment of managers who do not possess the skills and characteristic required within their managerial role. Inadequate training may also play a part and poor work organisation may play another. Hierarchy, rules, organisation and clear direction enable individuals to do what is expected of them within a set off clear guidelines. An organisational approach that is too rigid may create unnatural constraints and impede creativity. However an environment that allows the freedom to embrace new ideas yet feel supported in the Why, How, Where and When might provide needed advancement and improvement, whilst reducing the anxiety and stress. Finally, in a world of excess, we do expect more and better and through policy, law and legislation, our workplace has moved considerably from the ‘Dickensian’ model of the original 18th Century business. Perhaps some of the discontentment within the workplace can be attributed to our growing need for more and better. As individuals in society we too have evolved to expect growth, continuous improvement and diversity in our lives and that creates a feeling of discontentment and inadequacy with the current situation. The need to be better, have better and do more may also be partly responsible for work-life imbalance that creates disharmony within the workplace.

Bibliography

Daft, RL. (2004) Management. Thompson Publications.

Mullin. L J (2005) Management and Organisational Behaviour. Pearson Education.

Naylor, J. (1999) Management. Pearson Publication.

Keuning D. (1998) Management: A Contemporary Approach. Pearson Publication.