During the output stage of the problem-solving process a decision is made as to the best possible solution. A plan is developed to ensure the successful implementation. The plan is then put into action and the necessary steps are taken to follow the plan as it was developed. However, the plan may need to be modified as it progresses and the outcomes become clearer. (Huitt 1992. para 28-46)
The final stage, the review phase, involves evaluating the implementation and the effectiveness of the chosen solution and making the necessary adjustments. However, this stage should coincide with the previous stage of the process as it is important to analyse the plan during implementation and make adjustments as appropriate. (Huitt 1992. para 28-46)
The primary benefit of this model of problem-solving is that the process can be used by both the individual and the organisation to solve a wide variety of problems.
As there exists a considerable diversity of problems it would be unrealistic to suggest a separate process for each individual problem. This model has the advantage of being flexible and universal to most situations. (Huitt 1992. para 28-46)
The processes of planning, problem-solving and decision-making are closely related and in some situations depend upon one another. However, decision-making can occur in the absence of a problem. Problems tend to arise when strategic plans do not function as expected. Therefore, modifications to the original plan or alternate strategies need to be devised. However, people need to first recognise that a problem exists, identify likely causes and generate potential solutions before a decision can be made on the best possible course of action. (Brooks 1999: p32).
Decision making models maybe useful in choosing a suitable course of action that arrives at an acceptable outcome. There exists a multitude of decision-making models. However, this essay will discuss four basic models, the rational model, the political model, the process model and finally the garbage-can model.
The first of the decision-making models is known as the rational model. According to this model, first the problem needs to be identified in which a decision will need to be taken. Secondly, information is gathered and ideas and potential solutions are generated. Finally, a rational choice is made and the best solution is selected and then implemented. This model further assumes that the decision-maker can consistently assess the advantages and disadvantages of the alternatives with the goals and objectives of the organisation in mind. (Brooks 1999:p32)
The advantage of the rational model is that it employs a consistent sequential approach. Potential problems are recognised and decisions are made deductively by keeping in mind the objectives to be obtained, evaluating the alternatives and choosing the best possible recourse.
The disadvantage of this model is that it assumes that people will always make a rational decision. It does not take into account that people often make decisions irrationally or intuitively. Furthermore, it assumes that the environment is slow-moving and the decision-maker has plenty of time to evaluate the alternatives. However, in reality most people work in an atmosphere where there is considerable pressure and decisions need to be made quickly. In this context people tend to seek an immediate solution rather than explore all the possible alternatives. (Brooks 1999:p32) Herbert Simon (1960 cited by Brooks, 1999:p32) suggested that managers often choose the first solution they come across that will provide a satisfactory answer. Therefore, managers often use heuristics or short cuts to solve problems and reach quick decisions.
The second model is the political model. This model considers the preconceived ideas the decision-maker brings to the problem-solving process. Unlike the previous model the decision-maker is motivated by their own needs and perceptions and do not reach a decision based on the needs and objectives of the organisation. (Lyles and Thomas 1988, cited by Lahti, nd: para 13) This model involves the decision-maker trying to convince the manager or the person involved in the final decision to adopt their viewpoint. This model is based on negotiation and the decision-maker often has his or her own hidden agenda. Therefore, it is often in the interest of the decision-maker to withhold part or all of the information. Each individual presents his or own case to the management who then has the say in the final decision. (Lahti, nd : para.14)
The benefit of the political model is that it imitates the real world. For example, the cycle of bargaining and negotiation according to a personal agenda. However, the withholding of information and social pressure may have a detrimental effect. For example, the individuals involved in the decision-making process my not appreciate the deception and this can lead to conflict (Lahti, nd. Para 18)
The process model, in contrast to the political model, is a more structured process of decision-making. Decisions are based upon organisational policy or operating procedures. Conformity to these pre-established guidelines is a fundamental part of the process. (Cheshire and Feroz, 1989: cited by Lahti, nd. Para 21)
The final model of decision-making is the garbage can model. According to this model decisions tend to appear irrational and haphazard. This model considers the random interaction of events that may or may not produce a solution for a given problem and is based more on timing and luck rather that skill and knowledge. This model is used for organisations where the technologies are unclear; the participants fluctuate and have no clear boundaries. Solutions are created to fit problems that have not as yet arisen. When a problem arises the participants simply dip into the “garbage can” for a previously generated solution. (Cohen, Olson, March 1972 cited by Lahti, nd. Para24-28 )
The advantage of the garbage can model of decision-making is that it emulates reality where decisions are made in a non-rational manner and are made by improvising. Not all
decisions are made in a logical or standard fashion. The major disadvantage of this model is that is not the most efficient way of solving problems. It relies on luck and decisions are only made when the alignment of problem solution and individual coincide. (Cohen, Olsen and March, 1972 cited by Lahti nd. para. 28 )
In evaluating the benefits of the problem-solving and decision-making models it is not a question of which is the best model. They all have advantages and disadvantages and while one model may be suitable in one situation it may be inappropriate in another. However, a model is a good starting point for the analysis of problems. They help to facilitate the discovery of a problem, they promote resolutions and used in conjunction with effective decision-making they are likely to lead to an acceptable outcome. Furthermore, the problem-solving and decision-making process is often abstract and dynamic. Therefore, the utilisation of a model helps to make the process of problem-solving and decision-making systematic and structured.
However, it is worth mentioning that problem-solvers and decision-makers rely upon their cognitive abilities to reach a decision that will solve a problem. Individual knowledge, ability and motivation will affect how the decision-maker and the problem interact. This in turn influences the strategy used and affects the final outcome. Poor decisions may be made due to cognitive biases. Decisions will invariably be affected by the individual’s attitudes, values and beliefs. For example, the rational solution to a problem may go against the decision-makers beliefs or attitudes and may be rejected for a lesser acceptable solution. This is termed cognitive dissonance. (Brooks 1999, p33
Other cognitive biases which may lead to poor decision-making may include the illusion of control. According to Brooks (1999) this means “the individual believes that he or she can handle a complex problem but does not have the ability to do so” (Brooks 1999, p33). The individual may feel the need to maintain the illusion of control no matter how difficult the problem becomes. In situations like this unacceptable outcomes may be arrived at due the decision-makers defence of his or her own ego. (Brooks 1999, p33)
In conclusion, it is clear there are many benefits to using a problem solving model. Models help the individual and the organisation to gain a better understanding of how problems can be solved and how decisions are made. This in turn facilitates effective problem-solving strategies and leads to productive decision-making. Therefore, the use of a problem-solving model makes it more likely that the individual and organisation will arrive at a solution that is acceptable.
References
Brooks I, (1999) Organisational Behaviour, Individuals, Groups and the Organisation. England, Prentice Hall.
Fletcher R, (2002) Introduction to Management Studies, Institute Of Criminal Justice Studies (2003) University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth University Press
Huitt, W (1992) Problem-solving And Decision-making: Consideration Of Individual Differences Using The Myer-S Briggs Type Indicator. (Electronic Version.) Journal of Psychological Type, (nd) 24, 33-44. Retrieved December 2003 from www.chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/files/prbsmbti.html
Lehti R K (nd) Group Decision-making within the Organisation: Can Models Help? CSWT Reports. RetrievedDecember 2003 from
Simon H A (1986) Decision-making and Problem-solving. Report of the Research Briefing 1986: National Academy of Sciences. National Academic Press. (Electronic Version.) Retrieved December 2003 from
Bibliography
Brooks I, (1999) Organisational Behaviour, Individuals, Groups and the Organisation. England, Prentice Hall.
Fletcher R, (2002) Introduction to Management Studies, Institute Of Criminal Justice Studies (2003) University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth University Press
Huitt, W (1992) Problem-solving And Decision-making: Consideration Of Individual Differences Using The Myer-S Briggs Type Indicator. ( Electronic Version.) Journal of Psychological Type, (nd) 24, 33-44. Retrieved December 2003 from www.chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/files/prbsmbti.html
Lehti R K (nd) Group Decision-making within the Organisation: Can Models Help? CSWT Reports.Retrieved December 2003 from
Simon H A (1986) Decision-making and Problem-solving. Report of the Research Briefing 1986: National Academy of Sciences. National Academic Press. (Electronic Version.) Retrieved December 2003 from