While Maslow's hierarchy makes sense intuitively, there is little evidence to support its strict hierarchy. In fact, research contradicts the order of needs specified by the model. For example, some cultures appear to place social needs before any others. Maslow's hierarchy also has difficulty explaining cases such as the "starving artist" in which a person neglects physical needs in pursuit of aesthetic needs or spiritual needs. Finally, there is little evidence to suggest that people are motivated to satisfy exclusively one need at a time, except in situations where needs conflict. Maslow addressed some of these criticisms in his paper, Theory of Human Motivation. He explained that some people would put a need above others, such as self-actualization above physiological needs, when the lower need has been so neglected for a length of time that it becomes undervalued in the eyes of the person.
Despite of its criticism, Maslow’s theory has well enough applications to the work situations. It provides useful information for motivation at work .As already mentioned, every person strives for the fulfilment of certain needs. Thereby, an individual’s actual state in certain overall need classifications determines his /her behaviour at work. In other words, the state where an employee is in the ladder on hierarchy of needs influences the work performance of that employee. Individual needs have to be identified in order to motive people’s work behaviour. The knowledge of an employee’s unfulfilled needs may enable companies to influence the work performance. Fig. shows examples of how companies can motivate employees at all levels of the need hierarchy.
3.6.2.2 Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory
Herzberg theory argues that intrinsic factors are related to the job satisfaction and extrinsic factors are related to job dissatisfaction.Herzberg ‘s work categorised motivation into two sets of factors: hygiene factors and motivators.
Herzberg identified company policy, supervision, interpersonal relationships ,working conditions, salary, status and security as hygiene factors. Hygiene factors do not motivate employees, however, they may reduce the extent of dissatisfaction experienced by the individuals. That means if these factors are not present, or are mismanaged, they may cause dissatisfaction on the job. In an optimal situation, regarding the presence of hygiene factors, the employee will not experience dissatisfaction, but neither will he/she develop positive attitudes toward the work. Hygiene factors are related to the job context. They are the major environmental aspects of the work, in other words, they are extrinsic factors of the job. Herzberg identified achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement and growth as motivators. According to Herzberg, these factors satisfy a person’s need for self-actualization in his/her job and therefore, lead to positive feelings toward the work. The motivators are related to the job content, in other words, they are intrinsic.
Herzberg argued that hygiene factors led to job dissatisfaction due to an individual’s need to avoid unpleasantness, whereas the satisfaction generated by motivators was caused by a need for growth and self-actualization. Moreover, the factors providing job satisfaction were separate and distinct from the factors that led job dissatisfaction. Furthermore, positive and negative attitudes toward the job are not the opposite of each other, since they are influenced by different factors. Therefore, he suggested that the opposite of job satisfaction is no job satisfaction, and the opposite of job dissatisfaction is no job dissatisfaction.
Though Herzbeg’s motivation-hygiene theory has had great influence in the development of work motivation theory but still a positive criticism of the theory is that it is natural for people to take credit for satisfaction and to blame dissatisfaction on external factors. Furthermore, job satisfaction does not necessarily imply a high level of motivation and productivity.
Linking Maslow’s and Herzberg’s Theory
Herzberg’s two factor theory represnts an extention of Maslow’s need hierarchy.(figure).Thereby, the hygiene factors can be considered as lower level needs, whereas the motivators can be seen as higher level needs. Herzberg’s theory emphasis that attention has to be given to the hygiene factors as well as motivators in order to motivate employees. Furthermore, the major role of the work itself as afactor of motivation and job satisfaction is stressed.
3.6.2.3 The Job Characteristics Model
The motivation theories mentioned before contributed to a certain extent to the job characteristics model developed by Hackman and Oldman, which deals with the structure of the work in order to achieve a high internal motivation, high job satisfaction and high work effectiveness. This model considers the intrinsic motivation that causes a person to perform the job well due to interests on the work and challenges in the job.
The occurrence of internal motivation is caused by three basic conditions. These conditions influence not only an employee’s motivation to work, but also his/her satisfaction on the job. First, the individual must have knowledge of the results of his/her work performance. In other words, if the individual has no idea about how well or poorly he/she is performing the job, he/she will not develop any feelings such as happiness or sadness about his/her job performance. Secondly, the person must feel responsible and accountable for the results of his/her work. That means when a person thinks that his/her own efforts contribute only to a major extent to the quality of his/her work outcome, the individual will not generate any feelings such as pride or sadness towards the quality of work done.
Third, the person must experience work as meaningful. In other words, if the individual does not perceive his/her work as generally important, valuable and worthwhile, he/she will not develop internal motivation. Even when a person feels responsible for the work done and receives information about his/her performance, but lacks the feeling for doing a meaningful job, the internal motivation will unlikely to develop. In other words, if one of these conditions is missing, the internal motivation will not occur. All three factors-knowledge of results, experienced responsibility and experienced meaningfulness are necessary to develop and sustain a strong internal work motivation. Moreover the stronger these factors are presents, the higher the internal motivation.
The above-mentioned conditions for internal motivation are facilitated by five job characteristics. According to Hackman and Oldham, any job can be described in terms of the following five core job dimensions: Skill variety, Task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback. The three characteristics that have an influence on the meaningfulness of the work are skill variety, task identity and task significance. First skill variety is the extent to which a job requires a variety of activities so the worker can use a number of different skills and talents. Hackmanand Oldham pointed out that a challenge and stretch of an employee’s abilities and skills by his/her tasks will lead to the fact that the employee will perceive the work as meaningful. In addition, the more skills can be used, the more meaningful the task appears to be. Second, task identity refers to the degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. Third, task significance is the degree to which the job affects the lives or work of other people. It means, when people understand their work outcome will have an impact of someone’s well being (e.g happiness, safety or health)they will care more and experience meaningfulness in their work. If all three characteristics are present in a job, an employee is more likely to perceive his/her job as meaningful. Even if one or two characteristics are quite low, a person can experience his/her job as meaningful.
The characteristics of the job that influences the experienced responsibility for the work outcome is autonomy. It is the degree to which the job provides freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. Finally, the job characteristic that influences the knowledge of the results is the feedback, which a person receives directly from the work activities themselves. Feedback is the extent to which the job itself provides an individual with information about the effectiveness of his/her work performance.
A job has a high motivating potential if at least one of the three factors that fosters the experienced meaningfulness of a job is provided to a high extent, and the degree of both autonomy and feedback is high as well (fig.). The presence of these characteristics is necessary to create the conditions for the internal motivation, the experienced meaningfulness of the work, the experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work, and the knowledge of the actual results of the work activities.
Job characteristics model by Hackman and Oldham and Herzberg ‘s motivation-hygiene theory are similar in a sense that both theories focus on changeable aspects of the job in order to increase the motivation of employees. Both theories concentrate on individual motivation. A linkage of the theories mentioned up till now has been given in the following.
3.6.2.4 Theory X and Theory Y
Douglas McGregor in his book, “The Human side of Enterprise” published in 1960 has examined theories on behaviour of individuals at work, and he has formulated two models which he calls Theory X and Theory Y.
Theory X
McGregor’s term for the assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, seek to avoid responsibility, and must be coerced to perform. Under theory X, management approach can range from hard approach to a soft approach. The hard approach relies on coercion, implicit threats, close supervision, and tight controls, essential an environment of command and control. According to McGregor, hard approach results in hostility, purposely low output and hard-line union demands. While, soft approach is to be permissive and seek harmony with hope that in return employees will cooperate when asked to do so. The soft approach results in ever-increasing requests for more rewards in exchange for ever-decreasing output.
McGregor sees some problem with Theory X. He argues that a satisfied need no longer motivates. Theory X management style in fact hinders the satisfaction of higher-level needs. Consequently, the only way that employees can attempt or satisfy their higher level needs in their work is by seeking more compensation, so it is quite predictable that they will focus on monetary rewards. While money may not be the most effective way to self-fulfilment. Herzberg argued the same by describing “money” as hygiene factor.
Theory Y
McGregor’s term for the assumption that employees are creative, seek responsibility, and can exercise self-direction.Under these assumptions, there is an opportunity to align personal goals with organizational goals by using the employee’s own quest for fulfilment as the motivator. Mc Gregor recognized that some people may not have reached the level of maturity assumed by Theory Y and therefore may need tighter control that can be relaxed as the employee develops.
Theory Y gives management applications to harness the motivational energy of its employees by decentralization and delegation and by broadening the scope of an employee’s job adds variety and opportunities to satisfy ego needs. Consulting employees in the decision making process and having the employees set objectives and participate in the process of evaluating how well they were met, will also be a help the higher level needs of the employees through their jobs.
Steers M.Richard,Porter W.Lyman, Motivation and Leadership at work, pp20
Steers M.Richard,Porter W.Lyman, Motivation and Leadership at work, pp444
Robbins P.Stephen,Decenzo A.David,Fundamentals of Management ,third editiion,pp314
Robbins P.Stephen,Decenzo A.David,Fundamentals of Management ,third editiion,pp314
Robbins P.Stephen,Decenzo A.David, Fundamentals of Management ,third editiion,pp321
Robbins P.Stephen,Decenzo A.David, Fundamentals of Management ,third editiion,pp315
Robbins P.Stephen,Decenzo A.David, Fundamentals of Management ,third editiion,pp315