In France, the “classical” influences of the Revolution delayed the arrival of Romanticism somewhat, and an element of conservative nostalgia is more evident in the works of French Romantics in general. Just as the liberation of politics from old ideas and limitations provoked new idealism and self-questioning, however, it also to some extent hindered Romanticism on the continent by its revival of old debates and conservatism. Nationalism and a high nationalistic awareness therefore represented an obstacle to the expression of Romanticism to the same extent outside England and Germany, since the retrospective glorification of the past became associated with more mundane political struggles far more easily and lost much of the sublime element present in true Romanticism. This can largely be said of Spanish Romanticism, which became an extension of the post-Fernando VII political reaction. Writers exiled by the clerical censorship of his reign naturally adopted “Romanticism” as their cause since they saw it as the expression of the Liberal ideal in literature: a revolt against the unfeeling coldness of regulation in all its forms. Indeed, Victor Hugo described Romanticism in his preface to Hernani as simply “liberalism in literature”. Under the oppressive regime of Fernando VII, such liberalism was dangerous and worthy of exile, with the consequence that, upon the return of the exiles after his death, Romanticism was a political state of being rather than an artistic impulse.
It has been maintained by some that Romanticism was never noticeably influential in Spain because it was quintessentially Spanish in itself. It was in some ways an intensification and emphasis of certain central aspects of Spanish art rather than an innovation: its ideals of emancipation, the elevation of the individual, subjective lyricism as opposed to epic objectivity and an anarchical approach to procedure and motivation can be traced as literary currents in much of the nation’s previous literary history. The revitalisation of the noble moor is a particularly clear resurrection of past literary trends in this new guise. Perhaps this would partly explain the brevity of the movement in Spain, before other elements regained some of their former importance, but the lack of moderation and restraint was undoubtedly a new feature of the period. As Courtney Tarr put it, “Romanticism in Spain soon yielded to Spanish Romanticism. And so instead of bringing Spain – as it did for a moment – into contact once more with contemporary currents, Romanticism threw her back on the imitation of her own literary past.”
The evidence for this theory can be seen to some extent in the works of Duque de Rivas, who epitomises the nationalistic and local spirit of the period, full of evocative description and colour, while also remaining firmly adulatory of Spanish history and, perhaps, rather lacking in original quality in his verse. In El Moro expósito, for example, he makes a sustained effort at evoking the emotional attitude of the Middle Ages, but his artifice in recreating the scene is sometimes rather unconvincing and plastic. His Romances Históricos, however, show clearly the passion of his devotion and attachment to Spain, strengthened by his exile and possibly the most engaging feature of his verse. He was a diligent and implacable soldier of Spain, and his Romanticism is underscored by an abiding enchantment with the subjects of nationalism and honour, particularly related to his political position.
His Romances Históricos also contain elements of other Romantic features, however. He states in his prologue that ballads “son tan vigorosos en la expresión y en los pensamientos, que nos encanta su lectura; encontrando en ellos nuestra verdadera poesía castiza, original y robusta” and are a “género de poesía peculiar de nuestra nación.” This is a sentiment that appears to derive from the general Romantic ideals outlined above, namely the return to folk-derived forms and inspirations, and it is possible that it is one he came to develop through the influence of the English writer Sir John Hookham Frere, to whom he himself refers as having placed him “en este camino en el que he entrado”. It is likely that his interest in the Middle Ages and Spanish history existed before their meeting, but Frere undoubtedly acted to some extent as guide and instigator to his later style. His explicitly stated goal in using the form, “volverlo a su primer objecto y a su primer vigor enérgica sencillez”, was very similar to that sought by other truly Romantic authors.
One must consider, however, whether the form actually merited such defence in this period, and whether this alone would merit estimation as a significant literary feat. Its decline in the 18th century is unquestionable, but it had largely already been revived by the interests of German romantics such as the Schlegel brothers, Herder and many others. Whatever concealed or forgotten values the tradition had were already being re-evaluated and appreciated before Rivas began his work. The influence of the Romances Históricos, though, was in their appropriateness for and connection to the era in which they were produced more than their originality as a concept. In the aftermath of the Revolution, the war of independence and the spread of liberal ideas, Rivas’ work helped to appropriate nationalism and national militarism as elements of the new Romantic liberalism. In the belief that ballads were spontaneously arising creations of the populace, the epitome of Spanish ‘culture’, he and other poets believed that their patriotism, deriving from Spain’s traditions and heritage, expressed the essence of the country and was therefore Romantic. This was the novelty and significance of their works in terms of the development of Spanish literature. Though the level and boldness of imagery in the ballads is noteworthy, it alone doesn’t adequately explain the significance of his works in the larger context.
The way in which Rivas achieved this relevance and significance was in incarnating the desire for models or leaders typical of Romanticism in his exposition of Spain’s past. His choice of episodes and figures that represented the “national spirit” and thereby offered hope of its resurgence was, in intent, exemplary and inspirational, even if his adherence to the traditionalised form was not in the spirit of its spontaneity and freedom. He aimed to fulfil the role of prophet to some extent by representing the power of national pride and what it could lead to. One can see by the fact that not all the ballads are actually historical that the message, the evocation of glory and poeticization of Spanish attributes, is more important than the content. Furthermore, not all the central characters are traditional ‘heroes’. Rather than simply being virtuous characters, they are chosen for what they represent: the essential characteristics that show their humanity such as peaceful acceptance of death or generosity.
Rivas the moralist is indeed aiming to emulate the role of the seer or legislator who would change the present order of things through this opus. Almost all of the ballads appear to have some contemporary element, such as a lament against the intervention of foreign powers in Spanish national affairs being presented and criticised through the intervention of Duguesclin in the affairs of don Enrique. However, his aim in this moralising was simply to stir the emotions of the reader, evoking the past in order to elicit a passion for the present Spain and its interests. As such, their concern was not for extending the form of the verse they wrote, nor for embellishing the tradition of the ballad. They removed superfluous elements, such as formulaic repetition, in favour of digressionary details, descriptions or didacticism, and concentrated on characterisation and descriptive effect almost to the extent of emulating drama. In doing so they opened up the form and the history of Spain to new readers and later authors, stirring interest in both, without in fact adding anything to the variety and essential nature of the nation’s literature. Though the content of their verse was original in focus and context, the style and themes were well established and before long were again overtaken by swings in emphasis in favour of other aspects of the literary legacy, with the result that Romanticism in Spain was supplanted by other trends before it had had the same profound impact it did in other European countries.
